jrsity  of 
uthern  Region 
ibrary  Facilit 


Grizzly  Giant,"  a  Big  Tree  in  Mariposa  Grove,  California 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


BY 

EDWIN   W.  FOSTER 


GINN  &  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,  1903 
BY  EDWIN  W.  FOSTER 


ALL  BIGHTS  RESERVED 
54.6 


y.  he  Sltbenartim 

(JINX  &  COMPANY -CAM- 
BRIDGE •  MASSACHUSETTS 


PREFACE 

This  text  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  fur- 
nishing the  pupil  with  the  essential  facts  about  tools 
and  their  uses.  However  efficient  the  instruction  may 
be  and  however  attentive  the  pupil,  it  is  impossible  for 
him  to  fully  grasp  and  comprehend  during  a  demonstra- 
tion the  names  of  tools  and  technical  terms,  most  of 
which  are  new  to  him.  This  applies  with  equal  force 
to  the  manner  of  using  the  tools  and  to  the  methods  of 
working. 

The  function  of  the  text  is  to  supplement  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  teacher.  It  is  intended  to  gather  up  and 
arrange  in  a  logical  order  the  facts  which  the  pupil  has 
has  already  been  told.  By  this  means  these  facts  will 
become  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  and  he  will  work 
with  a  better  understanding  and  make  greater  progress. 

It  is  believed  that  the  text  can  be  used  to  the  great- 
est advantage  by  requiring  the  pupil  to  read  up  the  sub- 
jects presented  in  class  immediately  after  the  close  of  the 
lesson.  Frequent  rapid  reviews  and  occasional  written 
tests  are  very  effective. 


vi  PREFACE 

No  course  of  study  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  models 
is  presented.  It  is  hardly  possible  for  any  two  schools 
to  follow  the  same  series  of  models.  Local  conditions 
necessarily  affect  the  choice  of  a  course,  while  new  and 
better  designs  are  being  brought  out  continuously. 

The  order  in  which  the  tools  are  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  is  the  one  that  has  seemed  most  natural. 
They  may  be  taken  up,  however,  in  any  convenient  and 
logical  order. 

It  is  with  the  earnest  hope  that  nature  study  and 
manual  work  may  be  closely  correlated,  that  Part  II  is 
added.  No  better  period  can  be  selected  in  which  to 
study  trees,  their  leaves,  bark,  wood,  etc.,  than  when 
the  student  is  working  with  wood,  learning  by  experi- 
ence its  grain,  hardness,  color,  and  value  in  the  arts. 

Occasional  talks  on  the  broader  topics  of  forestry,  its 
economic  aspects,  climatic  effects,  influence  on  rainfall, 
the  flow  of  rivers,  floods,  droughts,  etc.,  will  be  found 
interesting  as  well  as  instructive,  and  such  interest 
should  be  instilled  into  every  American  boy  and  girl. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  the  Fish,  Forest,  and  Game 
Commission  of  New  York  state  for  the  series  of  Adiron- 
dack lumbering  scenes,  and  to  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Forestry  for  the  views  of  California  Big  Trees. 

EDWIN  W.  FOSTER. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.     TOOLS 

PAGE 

Chapter  I.     Introduction 3 

General  directions  regarding  care  of  tools  and  bench.  Plan  of 
work  and  division  of  tools  into  groups. 

Chapter  II.     Measuring  and  Marking  Tools 5 

The  rule :  divisions ;  method  of  using.  The  try-square :  method 
of  handling.  The  framing  square.  The  marking  gauge.  The  bevel. 

Chapter  III.     Cutting  Tools 11 

Saws:  necessity  for  two  classes;  shape  of  teeth;  set;  tapers; 
method  of  holding.  Backsaw ;  use  of  bench  hook.  The  turning  saw. 
The  plane  :  use  of  cap  iron  ;  names  of  parts.  Adjustment  of  plane. 
Use  of  lever  and  adjusting  screw ;  positions  for  planing.  The  jack 
plane.  The  smooth  plane.  Jointers ;  action  of  short  and  long 
planes.  The  block  plane.  The  wooden  plane.  The  chisel :  size  of 
cutting  angle  ;  effect  of  careless  sharpening.  The  framing  and  firmer 
chisels ;  proper  positions  for  horizontal  and  vertical  cutting.  Sharp- 
ening on  oilstone.  Brace  and  bit.  Center  and  auger  bits;  gimlet 
and  countersink  bits.  The  spokeshave. 

Chapter  IV.     Miscellaneous  Tools  and  Methods  of  Work  ...     31 

The  hammer ;  use  of  nail  punch.  The  mallet.  The  screw-driver. 
Sandpaper,  use  of.  Squaring  up  stock ;  method  explained  in  detail. 
Laying  out  work ;  method  of  laying  out  a  typical  joint.  Securing 
parts ;  use  of  glue  and  hand  screws.  Nails ;  method  of  using  cut  nails. 
Screws ;  method  of  using  round-head  and  flat-head  screws.  Mechan- 
ical drawing.  The  drawing  instruments  explained,  and  method  of 
making  complete  working  drawings  described.  Scale  drawings. 


viii  CONTENTS 


PART  II.     WOOD 

PAGE 

Chapter  V.     Lumbering  and  Milling 51 

The  forest ;  felling  trees  and  floating  logs  to  the  mill.  The  form- 
ing and  breaking  up  of  log  jams.  The  log  boom  and  modern  saw- 
mills. Timber  and  lumber  denned.  Annual  rings ;  medullary  rays ; 
formation  of  grain.  Characteristics  and  defects  in  wood.  Warping 
and  shrinkage. 

Chapter  VI.     Broad-Leaved  Trees :   the  Oaks 65 

White  oak.  Post  oak.  Mossy-cup  oak.  Black  and  black-jack 
oak.  Red  oak.  Scarlet  and  pin  oaks.  Chestnut  oak.  Live  oak. 

Chapter  VII.     Broad-Leaved  Trees :    the  Maples 76 

Sugar  and  Norway  maples.  Silver  and  red  maples.  Sycamore 
maple.  Moosewood.  Maple  keys.  Ash-leaved  maple.  Japan  maples. 

Chapter  VIII.     Broad-Leaved  Trees  having  Compound  Leaves    .     85 

Horse-chestnut.  Buckeye.  The  hickories.  Black  walnut  and  but- 
ternut. Locust.  Honey  locust.  Ash. 

Chapter  IX.     Broad-Leaved  Trees  having  Simple  Leaves    ...     94 

Elm.  The  birches.  Beech.  Ironwood.  Buttonball.  Sweet  gum. 
Tulip.  Basswood.  Willow.  The  poplars.  Sassafras.  Mulberry. 

Chapter  X.     The  Evergreens Ill 

White  pine.  Georgia  pine.  Yellow  pine.  Hemlock.  Spruce. 
Cypress.  Balsam  fir.  The  cedars. 

Chapter  XI.     The  Big  Trees  of  California 123 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

PART  I 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

In  order  to  obtain  good  results  in  the  using  of  tools 
it  is  necessary  to  know  their  construction,  how  to  prop- 
erly sharpen  and  adjust  them,  and  the  correct  method 
of  handling  them.  It  is  also  essential  to  know  how  to 
lay  out  and  work  the  material  or  stock.  Carelessness 
or  a  lack  of  knowledge  is  invariably  followed  by  a 
failure.  It  is  more  important  at  first  to  work  carefully 
and  accurately  than  rapidly. 

"  Tools  are  made  to  be  used,  not  abused."  They 
must  be  kept  clean  and  sharp  and  should  be  used  only 
for  the  purpose  intended.  Wipe  them  off  occasionally 
with  an  oily  rag  or  waste  to  prevent  them  from  rusting. 
Put  away  all  tools  not  in  use  and  keep  the  top  of  the 
bench  clean.  Do  not  mark  it  with  a  pencil  or  scratch 
it  with  a  knife.  Do  not  cut  into  it  with  the  chisel 
or  allow  other  tools  to  mark  or  deface  it.  When  using 
glue,  shellac,  or  similar  materials,  cover  the  top  of  the 
bench  ;  or,  better  still,  do  the  work  on  a  table  provided 
for  that  purpose. 


4  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

The  plan  of  work  in  making  all  models  is  in  general 
the  same  and  is  as  follows : 

First.  "  Squaring  up"  the  stock. 
Second.  "Laying  out"  the  work. 
Third.  Cutting  to  the  lines. 

When  the  article  is  composed  of  two  or  more  pieces  a 
fourth  step  may  be  added,  namely,  fitting  and  securing 
the  parts. 

The  tools  used  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  as 
follows : 

First.  Laying-out  tools.  These  include  the  rule,  tiy -square,  mark- 
ing gauge,  bevel,  and  knife. 

Second.  Cutting  tools.  In  this  group  are  the  saw,  plane,  chisel, 
spokeshave,  bit,  and  knife. 

Third.  Miscellaneous  tools,  such  as  the  hammer,  mallet,  screw- 
driver, brace  (or  bitstock),  and  others  not  so  common. 


CHAPTER  II 

MEASURING   AND    MARKING   TOOLS 

1.  The  Rule.  The  standard  unit  of  length  is  the  yard, 
but  the  foot  is  commonly  used  for  all  measurements 
in  woodwork.  If  the  rule  be  twelve  inches  long  it  is 
known  as  a  foot  rule,  and  if  twenty-four  inches  long 
it  is  called  a  two-foot  rule.  The  inches  are  subdivided 
into  halves,  quarters,  eighths,  and  in  some  cases  six- 
teenths. Rules  are  usually  of  boxwood  or  maple,  with 


FIG.  1.    The  Rule 

brass  joints,  and  are  commonly  made  to  fold  once  or 
twice. 

The  rule  is  quite  thick,  and  if  laid  flat  upon  the  work 
to  be  measured  errors  will  usually  follow.  It  should 
be  stood  on  edge  so  that  the  pencil  or  knife  point  may 
touch  the  divisions  on  it  and  the  wood  at  the  same  time. 
The  proper  position  when  laying  out  measurements  is 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


shown  in  the  sketch  (Fig.  2).     Consecutive  measure- 
ments should  be  laid  off  without  moving  the  rule. 


A 


STOCK 


RULE 


Kill, 

,     1     , 

i   1   i   1   i   ! 

XJ  ,  i  , 

1 

STOCK 

FIG.  2.    Methods  of  using  the  Kule :  A,  incorrect ;  B,  correct 

2.  The  Try-Square.    The  try-square  has  two  distinct 
uses :    first,  to  act  as  a  guide  for  the  pencil  or  knife 


FIG.  3.    The  Try-Square 

point  in  laying  out  lines  across  the  grain  at 
right  angles  to  the  edge,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4  ; 
second,  for  testing  or  trying  the  adjoining 
sides  to  see  if  they  are  square  with  each 
other. 


MEASURING  AND  MARKING  TOOLS  7 

The  try-square  may  be  made  entirely  of  iron  or 
steel,  but  sometimes  the  beam  A  is  of  wood  with  a 
brass  strip  C  to  protect  it  and  to  take  the  wear.  The 


FIG.  4.    Methods  of  using  the  Try-Square 

blade  B  is  of  steel  and  is  divided,  like  a  rule,  into 
inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch.  Try-squares  are  made 
in  several  sizes,  the  most  convenient  for  general  use 
being  six  inches. 

In  using  the  try-square  the  beam  should  be  held 
firmly  against  the  face  or  edge  of  the  stock.  When 
working  near  the  end  of  the  piece,  if  the  beam  projects, 
reverse  its  position.  For  nice,  accurate  work  the  knife 
point  instead  of  the  pencil  should  be  used  for  lining. 

When  it  is  desired  to  saw  off  the  end  of  the  stock  it 
is  first  necessary  to  mark  or  square  clear  around  it  with 
the  knife  and  try-square.  In  doing  this  the  beam  of 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


the  try-square  must  be  used  against  the  work  face  and 
joint  edge  only.     Large  squares  made  of  steel  in  one 


piece  are  called  framing  squares,  and  are  used  by 
carpenters  and  others  for  rough  or  large  work. 
3.  The  Marking  Gauge.  The  marking  gauge 
is  shown  in  Figs.  6  and  7.  A  is  the  gauge 
stick,  B  the  gauge  block,  S  the  set  screw,  and 
P  the  marking  point,  or  spur.  The  gauge  stick 


FIG.  6.   The  Marking  Gauge 

is  graduated  like  a  rule  into  inches  and  frac- 
tions, beginning  at  the  steel  marking  point; 
but  as  the  latter  is  not  always  exactly  in  the 
right  place  the  graduations  are  not  entirely 
reliable.  It  is  safer  then  to  set  the  gauge 
with  the  rule  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

o 


MEASURING    AND   MARKING   TOOLS  9 

Hold  gauge  bottom  side  up  in  left  hand  and  rule 
in  right.    Place  end  of  rule  against  gauge  block  and 


Rule 

2\ 

.,.!.,.      ,,,!,,,!          1 

ft 

V    t> 

cr>  o 

^03 

<5 

•*-—  ^_^ 

1  Gauge  Stick     ' 

A  "  ®) 

T 

FIG.  7.    Setting  the  Marking  Gauge 

the  measurement  desired  at  spur.  Turn  set  screw.  The 
gauge  is  then  accurately  set.  In  the  cut  the  gauge  is  set 
at  one  inch  and  is  ready  for  use. 

To  gauge  a  line  parallel  to  the  edge  of  a  block  hold 
the  tool  firmly,  with  thumb  and  forefinger  encircling 
gauge  block.  Tip  the  tool 
away  from  you  until  the 
marking  point  (spur)  barely 
touches  the  wood  and  push 
the  tool  away  from  (never 
toward)  you.  The  line 
made  should  be  as  fine  as 
a  knife  line.  A  little  prac-  FlG' 8"  Holding  the  Marking  Gauge 
tice  is  needed  to  give  the  proper  control,  as  the  marking 
point  tends  to  follow  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which  is 
usually  not  straight. 


10 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


A  good  plan  is  to  use  a  small  piece  of  prepared  stock 
as  a  practice  block,  laying  out  lines  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
apart,  then  an  eighth,  and  finally  a  sixteenth. 

4.  The  Bevel.  The  bevel  differs  from  the  try-square  in 
having  a  movable  blade. 


FIG.  9.    The  Bevel 

This  tool  may  be  used  to  lay  out  lines  at  any  angle 
from  zero  to  180  degrees.  The  blade  may  be  fixed 
firmly  at  any  desired  angle  by  simply  turning  the  set 
screw.  The  method  of  using  it  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  try-square. 


CHAPTER   III 

CUTTING   TOOLS 

5.  Saws.  The  saw  might  be  described  as  a  succession 
of  chisels,  one  back  of  the  other.  We  can  readily  under- 
stand the  action  of  the  saw  by  making  cuts  with  a  nar- 
row chisel  along  the  grain  of  a  piece  of  wood,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  10  at  a. 


FIG.  10.    Cutting  with  and  across  the  Grain  with  a  Narrow  Chisel 

The  little  pieces  of  wood  removed  in  this  way  are 
similar  to  the  sawdust  made  by  the  saw,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  in  the  saw  the  teeth  are  narrower  and 
the  little  pieces  consequently  smaller,  and  instead  of  one 
chisel  dozens  are  being  pushed  forward  at  one  time. 

A  saw  with  these  chisel-shaped  teeth,  and  used  for 
cutting  along  the  grain,  is  called  a  ripsaw. 

11 


12  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

That  this  tool  will  not  cut  so  readily  across  the  grain 
may  easily  be  proved  by  again  resorting  to  the  narrow 
chisel  and  attempting  to  repeat  the  first  experiment. 
The  wood  will  act  as  shown  in  Fig.  10  at  6,  splitting 
along  the  grain  in  both  directions.  It  is  quite  evident, 
then,  that  a  tool  for  cutting  across  the  grain  must  be 
constructed  in  some  other  way. 

Continuing  this  experiment,  let  us  cut  the  fibers  with 
a  knife  point  in  two  parallel  lines  across  the  grain, 


FIG.  11.    The  Saw 

close  together,  as  at  c.  It  will  be  found  that  the  wood 
between  these  lines  may  now  be  easily  removed  with  the 
narrow  chisel.  This  fact  is  made  the  basis  on  which 
we  construct  the  crosscut  saw.  Every  tooth  is  sharp- 
ened to  a  point,  one  on  the  right  side,  the  next  on 
the  left,  giving  two  parallel  lines  of  sharp  points 
designed  to  cut  the  fibers,  as  was  done  in  our  experi- 
ment with  the  knife.  Fig.  12  shows  the  end  view  of  the 
crosscut  teeth  enlarged.  Observe  that  not  only  are 
the  alternate  teeth  sharpened  on  opposite  sides,  but 


CUTTING  TOOLS  13 

each  tooth  is  bent  outward  from  the  body  of  the  saw. 
This  bending  is  called  set,  and  is  designed  to  make 
the  saw  cut,  or  kerf,  wider  than  the  thickness  of  the 
saw,  that  the  latter  may  pass  easily  through  the  wood 
after  the  teeth  have  done  their  work.  If  it  were  not 
for  this  set,  the  fibers  would  spring  back  against  the 
body  of  the  saw  after  the  teeth  had  passed  and  make 
the  work  very  laborious.  When  a  saw  is  properly  set 
it  should  pass  through  the  wood  easily. 


LA 

End  view  Side  view  End  view  Side  view 

FIG.  12.    Teeth  of  Crosscut  Saw  FIG.  13.    Teeth  of  Ripsaw 

The  teeth  of  the  ripsaw  are  also  set,  but,  as  will  be 
seen  in  the  sketch,  the  bottoms  are  flat  like  a  chisel 
instead  of  pointed  like  those  of  the  crosscut  teeth. 

Beside  the  end  views  of  the  two  kinds  of  teeth, 
the  side  views,  which  are  also  different,  are  shown  in 
Figs.  12  and  13. 

We  are  inclined  to  think  of  the  saw  as  a  very  com- 
monplace article,  yet  a  careful  examination  will  prove 
that  the  greatest  care  and  skill  are  needed  in  its  man- 
ufacture. Observe  that  the  body,  which  must  be  of 
the  best  steel,  tapers,  being  considerably  wider  at  the 


14 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


handle  than  at  the  opposite  end.  This  is  to  give 
strength,  and  to  prevent  'buckling,  or  bending,  as  the 
tool  is  pushed  forward. 


FIG.  14.    Body  of  Saw,  showing  Tapers 

Most  delicate  measurements  must  be  made,  however, 
to  discover  that  not  only  the  width  but  the  thickness 
increases  from  A  to  B,  and  decreases  from  C  to  D. 
How  carefully  this  tapering  must  be  done  can  be  real- 
ized when  we  know  that  the  difference  in  thickness 
from  A  to  B  is  only  three  one-thousandths  of  an  inch, 
and  from  C  to  D  twelve  one-thousandths  at  end  A 

and  five   one-thou- 
sandths at  end  B. 

The  saw  should 
be  held  in  the  right 
hand,  with  the  left 
grasping  the  board. 
The  thumb  of  the 

FIG.  16.    Method  of  holding  the  Saw          jeft    hand     ^^     ^ 

guide,  the  saw  is  tilted,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  and  drawn 
toward  the  worker  at  the  first  stroke.     This  tool  should 


CUTTING   TOOLS 


15 


be  used  without  exerting  much  pressure,  in  accordance 
with  the  general  rule  that  we  do  our  best  work  with 
tools  when  we  work  easily  and  deliberately. 


FIG.  16.    The  Backsaw 

Many  varieties  of  saws  are  designed  for  special  pur- 
poses, including  those  which  cut  stone  and  metal. 

6.  Backsaw. 
The  backsaw  is  a 
crosscut  saw  with 
small  teeth,  and 
has  a  heavy  steel 
backpiece,  Fig. 
17,  to  prevent 
bending.  In  this 
respect  it  differs 
from  the  ordinary 

crosscut  vario-          FIG.  17.    Method  of  using  the  Backsaw  and 

Bench  Hook 

ties,  which  bend 

readily.     The  purpose  of  the  backsaw  is  to  make  fine, 

straight   cuts  in  delicate,   accurate  work.       The   steel 


16 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


back  B  is  necessary  on  account  of  the  thin  blade,  but 
on  account  of  the  thickness  of  B  no  cut  can  be  made 

deeper  than  the 
line  C.  This  tool 
will  cut  in  any 
direction  with 
reference  to  the 
grain,  but  is  pri- 
marily a  crosscut 
saw. 

7.  The  Turning 

FIG.  18.    The  Bench  Hook  gaw<    Jn  ordinary 

work  the  saw  is  supposed  to  cut  to  a  straight  line,  but 
there  are  certain  classes  of  work  where  it  is  desirable 


FIG.  19.    The  Turning  Saw 

to  follow  a  curved  line,  and  consequently  a  special  tool  is 
necessary.     The  turning  saw  shown  in  the  cut  is  used  for 


CUTTING  TOOLS 


17 


this  purpose.     The  handles  holding  the  saw  blade  may 
be  turned  in  any  direction  with  reference  to  the  frame. 

8.  The  Plane.    The  plane  reduces  our  rough  lumber 
to  planed,  or  dressed,  stock.     The   cutting  part  is  a 
thin,  wide  chisel  called  the  plane 
iron. 

Fig.  20  shows  the  position  of 
the  plane  iron  in  operation.  As- 
sume the  iron  to  be  moving  in 
the  direction  of  the  arrow  on  a 
piece  of  wood.  The  sharp  point 
would  enter  the  board  and,  should 
the  grain  be  unfavorable,  start 
a  splitting  action,  as  shown  at  a. 

TTT         •  i  ,  i      ,  i  i      FIG.  20.    The  Plane  Iron  in 

We  wish  to  smooth  the  wood 

Action 

instead  of  roughing  it,  and  must 

in  some  way  stop  the  splitting.     This  is  accomplished 
by  placing  a  cap  iron  on  the  plane  iron,  as  shown  at  b. 

The  cap  bends  and  breaks 
the  shaving  before  the 
splitting  action  has  a 
chance  to  begin,  and  gives 


b 


FIG.  21.    Plane  Iron,  Cap,  and  Set 

Screw 


the  spiral  form  so  familiar 
in  wood  shavings. 
The  cap  is  firmly  fastened  to  the  plane  iron  by  a 
stout  screw,  and  this  whole  combination  is  fastened  in 


18 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


the  throat  of  the  plane  by  a  clamp  (Fig.  22).  The  open- 
ing on  the  bottom  of  the  plane  through  which  the  cut- 
ting edge  protrudes  is  called  the  mouth  of  the  plane. 


Toe  " -Mouth 

FIG.  22.    Sectional  Views  of  Iron  Plane 

9.  Adjustment  of  Plane.  There  are  two  ways  of  adjust- 
ing a  modern  iron  plane,  —  by  means  of  the  set  screw  s, 
and  of  the  lever  I. 


CUTTING  TOOLS  19 

Screw  s  lowers  or  raises  the  plane  iron  so  that  we 
may  take  a  thin  or  thick  shaving,  and  lever  /  straightens 
the  iron,  which  is  liable  to  project  more  on  one  side 
than  on  the  other,  and  will  then  take  a  shaving  thicker 
on  one  side  than  on  the  other. 

Before  using  the  plane  always  examine  it  carefully. 
Invert  the  tool,  holding  it  toward  the  light  with  the 
toe  toward  you,  and  glance  along  the  bottom.  If  the 
iron  projects,  observe  whether  it  is  even,  and  if  not, 
move  the  lever  until  it  is.  For  a  thin  shaving  the  cut- 
ting edge  should  appear  as  a  black  line  of  uniform 
thickness.  For  a  heavy  shaving  turn  the  brass  screw 
until  the  iron  projects  slightly. 

In  using  the  plane  avoid  a  stooping  position.  Stand 
with  the  right  side  to  the  bench  and  with  the  shoulders 
thrown  back.  Let  the  pressure  of  the  left  hand  be 
greater  at  the  beginning  and  that  of 
the  right  hand  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 


n 


The  tool  should  rest  perfectly  flat  on 
the  wood  from  start  to  finish. 

10.  The  Jack  Plane.  The  ordinary  FIG  23  Irong  of 
plane  iron  has  a  straight  edge,  as  shown  Smooth  and  Jack 
at  a,  Fig.  23,  but  when  a  large  quantity 
of  wood  is  to  be  removed  the  iron  is  sharpened  in 
the  shape  shown  at  6.  This  curved  iron  will  cut  out 
the  wood  in  hollows,  leaving  ridges  between,  and  it 


20  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 

is  necessary  to  follow  this  jack  plane  with  a  finer  one 
having  a  straight  edge  in  order  to  smooth  the  surface. 
The  jack  plane  might  be  called  a  roughing  plane. 


FIG.  24.    Relative  Sizes  of  Smooth  and  Jack  Tlanes 
The  lower  figure  is  a  jack  plane 

11.  The  Smooth  Plane.  The  smoothing  plane  is  shorter 
than  the  jack  plane,  its  object  being  to  smooth  the  sur- 
face without  regard  to  straightening  it,  as  it  is  supposed 
that  the  straightening  has  previously  been  done.  The 


CUTTING  TOOLS 


21 


FIG.  25.  Action  of  Short  and  Long 
Planes 


cap  iron  in  the  smooth  plane  should  be  set  from  a  six- 
teenth to  a  thirty-second  of  an  inch  from  the  cutting 
edge  of  the  plane  iron. 

12.  Jointers.  For  straightening  very  rough  and  un- 
even stock  a  long  plane  is  necessary  (Fig.  25).  In  the 
illustration  let  line  ab  rep- 
resent the  edge  of  a  very 
uneven  board.  A  short 
plane  c  would  simply  fol- 
low the  hills  and  hollows, 
smoothing  but  not  straight- 
ening it,  while  a  long  plane, 
as  shown  at  d,  would  merely  cut  off  the  top  of  the  high 
places,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  and  would  not  touch 
the  bottoms  of  the  hollows  until  all  the  elevations  were 
leveled ;  in  other  words,  until  the  surface  was  straight- 
ened. Such  planes,  which 
are  often  three  feet  long  or 
more,  are  called  jointers. 

13.  The  Block  Plane.  To 
square  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
stock  the  conditions  are  quite  different  from  those 
just  described  where  we  were  planing  with  the  grain. 
In  end  planing  no  cap  iron  is  necessary,  the  plane 
iron  in  the  block  plane  being  reversed  with  bevel 
side  up. 


FIG.  26.    The  Block  Plane 


22 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


This  tool  requires  more  care  than  the  others,  as  the 
stroke  is  usually  quite  short,  and  if  the  cutting  edge  is 
allowed  to  reach  the  farther  corner, 
the  latter  will  be  broken  off. 

To  avoid  this  error  the  plane 
must  be  lifted  up  before  the  end 
of  the  stroke,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  line  a.  The  piece  is  then 
reversed,  and  planed  as  shown  by 
arrow  &.  In  this  way  the  whole  end  is  smoothed,  with- 
out ruining  the  corners. 

Besides  these  standard  planes  there  are  many  patent 
and  special  ones  for  cutting  tongues,  grooves,  beads,  etc. 
14.  The  Wooden  Plane.  Although  the  iron-bodied 
planes  just  described  are  now  in  common  use,  the  old- 
fashioned  wooden  plane  is  still  the  favorite  of  many 
woodworkers. 


FIG.  27.    Method  of  using 
Block  Plane 


FIG.  28.    The  Wooden  Plane 

This  tool,  while  lacking  some  of  the  adjustments  of 
the  iron  plane,  was  much  simpler  and  contained  a 
smaller  number  of  parts. 


CUTTING  TOOLS  23 

The  iron  and  cap  were  held  in  position  by  a  wooden 
wedge,  which  was  driven  in  by  a  light  blow  of  the 
hammer.  The  workman  removed  the  iron  and  wedge 
by  turning  the  plane  upside  down  and  striking  the 
forward  part  a  light  downward  blow  on  the  bench, 
while  the  thickness  of  the  shaving  was  increased  by 
a  light  tap  on  the  plane  iron. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  wooden  plane  was 
its  liability  to  wear  and  warp,  so  that  it  became  neces- 
sary to  straighten,  or  joint,  the  face.     No  such  diffi- 
culty is  encountered  in  the  d 
iron-bodied  plane.                           \/^«     incorrect       { 

15.  The  Chisel.    The  chisel    #**-"  * 

is  one  of  the  simplest  forms  .^ — ? 

^*^*a        Correct         I 

of  cutting  tools.     The  size  of        ^— l 

the  angle  a  depends  on  the    FlG.  29.  Cutting  Angle  of  chisel 
kind  of  material  to  be  cut. 

A  chisel  for  cutting  wood  must  be  sharpened  to  an 
angle  of  from  30  to  35  degrees. 

By  careless  sharpening  an  extra  bevel  is  sometimes 
formed,  as  shown  at  b. 

The  cutting  angle  is  then  no  sharper  than  if  ,the 
chisel  were  shaped  like  that  shown  by  dotted  lines, 
and  care  must  always  be  taken  when  sharpening  to 
keep  the  line  cd  straight,  so  that  angle  a  will  be  the 
real  cutting  angle. 


24 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


Two  classes  of  chisels  are  in  common  use :  the  fram- 
ing chisel  used  for  heavy  work,  such  as  the  frames  of 
buildings ;  and  the  firmer  chisel. 


The  framing  chisel 


FIG.  30.   The  Framing  Chisel 


FIG.  31.    The  Firmer  Chisel 

is  strong  and  heavy,  and  has  a  handle  capable  of  with- 
standing the  blows  of  a  mallet.  The  firmer  chisel  is 

designed  for  finer  and  lighter 
work  without  the  mallet. 

The  chisel  must  be  sharp 
if  we  wish  to  do  good  and 
accurate  work,  and  a  cut  on 
the  hand  made  by  such  a 
sharp  tool  is  liable  to  be  a 
deep  one.  Special  care  must 
be  used  in  handling  it,  keep- 

FIG.  32.  Proper  Position  for  Hori-  ing  botn  hands  away  from 
zontai  Chiseling  the  cutting  edge,  as  shown 

in  the  sketch,  and  placing  it  when  not  in  use  where  it 
cannot  be  pushed  off  the  bench  on  to  the  floor  or  the 
student's  feet. 


CUTTING   TOOLS 


25 


Fig.  32  shows  the  method  of  using  the  tool  on  hori- 
zontal work,  and  Fig.  33  for  vertical  cutting.     For  this 
kind  of  work  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  cutting  edge  can  be  used,  the  stu- 
dent judging  for  himself  how  heavy  a 
cut  to  take  by  the  hardness  of  the  wood 
and  amount  of  strength  required.     Good 
work  can  never  be  done  when  one  has 
to  exert  all  his   strength  on  the  tool. 
The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained   when    we    work 
easily. . 

Better  work  can  usu- 
ally be  done  with  the 
chisel  if,  instead  of  push- 
ing it  straight  ahead  or 
straight  downward,  we  incline  it  somewhat  so  as  to 
secure  a  slight  paring  action. 


FIG.  33.    Proper  Position  for 
Vertical  Chiseling 


FIG.  34.    Sharpening  Chisel  on  Oilstone 

When  the  chisel  becomes  dull,  unless  its  edge  has 
been  nicked  or  ruined  by  some  accident,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  sharpen  it  on  the  oilstone.  Hold  the  tool 


26  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

with  the  bevel  flat  on  the  stone.  A  drop  or  two  of  oil 
may  be  used  to  lubricate  the  stone,  the  tool  being  worked 
back  and  forth  on  the  face  of  it.  Especial  care  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  a  rocking  motion,  which  will  produce 
a  curved  edge  instead  of  a  flat  one. 


FIG.  35.   Common  Forms  of  the  Brace 

After  the  rubbing,  reverse  the  chisel,  lay  the  flat  side 
firmly  on  the  stone,  and  draw  toward  you.  This  is  to 
straighten  the  wire  edge  which  has  been  turned  over 
by  the  nibbing.  The  wire  edge  may  then  be  removed 


CUTTING  TOOLS 


27 


by  drawing  the  cutting  edge  across  the  end  of  a  block 
of  wood.  When  the  chisel  is  nicked  or  very  dull  it 
must  be  ground  on  the  grindstone. 

16.  Brace  and  Bit.    The  old-fashioned  augers  and  gim- 
lets have  given  way  to  the  modern  brace  and  bit. 


FIG.  36.    The  Center  Bit 


The  brace,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  bitstock, 
allows  both  hands  to  be  used  continuously,  which  was 
not  true  of  the  old-fashioned  auger.  Several  varieties 
of  the  brace  are  in  use,  the  ones  shown  in  the  cuts 
being  common. 

Bits  are  designed  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  the  name 
being  applied  to  a  tool  which  is  to  be  turned  by  the 


FIG.  37.   The  Auger  Bit 

brace.     The  old-fashioned  center  bit  shown  in  the  cut 
possessed  most  of  the  essentials  of  a  good  boring  tool. 

The  sharp  spur  in  the  center  allowed  the  hole  to  be 
accurately  placed.  The  lip  on  the  outer  edge  cut  the 
fibers  in  a  circle  before  the  chisel  edge  began  to  remove 


28  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

the  wood,  and  so  a  smooth  hole  could  be  bored ;  but, 
considerable  pressure  was  necessary  to  force  the  tool 
through  the  wood. 

The  progress  that  has  been  made  in  the  manufacture 
of  tools  can  be  easily  appreciated  by  comparing  this 
center  bit  with  the  modern  auger  bit. 

Referring  to  the  sketch  (Fig.  38),  B  B  are  two  knife 
points,  or  nibs,  which  cut  the  wood  fibers  before  the 
chisel  edges,  or  lifis,  C  C,  can  touch 
the  wood.  The  point  A  allows  us 
to  accurately  place  the  center  of 

FIG.  38.  Details  of      the  hole  where  we  wish  it,  and  the 

screw  back  of  A  draws  the  tool  into 

the  wood  as  it  revolves.     This  part  is  known  as  the 

spur,  or  worm.      On  this  class  of  bits  no  pressure   is 

necessary. 

The  opposite  end  of  the  bit,  called  the  shank,  fits  into 
the  brace.  Any  tool  with  such  a  shank,  and  designed 
for  use  with  the  brace,  is  a  bit.  We  have  screw-driver 
bits,  gimlet  bits,  auger  bits,  etc. 

On  the  shank  of  an  auger  bit  will  be  found  a  number. 
This  is  the  numerator  of  a  fraction  whose  denominator 
is  16.  If  we  find  this  number  to  be  4,  it  is  a  y^,  or  a 
{-inch  bit.  If  the  number  is  16,  we  have  a  }-f,  or  a 
one-inch  bit,  etc.,  always  referring  to  the  diameter  of  the 
hole  which  the  tool  will  bore. 


CUTTING   TOOLS 


29 


In  using  the  brace  and  bit  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  bit  shank  is  far  enough  in  the  brace  to  be  fas- 
tened securely,  and  that  the  tool  is  held  at  right  angles 
to  the  wood.  It  may  appear  from  the  front  to  be  per- 
fectly vertical,  yet  by  stepping  to  one  side  and  looking 
at  it  from  another  position  it  will  frequently  be  found 
far  from  vertical.  When  starting  a  hole  it  is  well  to 
do  this  several  times  until  assured  that  the  tool  is  work- 
ing in  a  true  upright  position. 


FIG.  39.    The  Gimlet  Bit 


FIG.  40.    The  Countersink  Bit 

The  gimlet  bit  is  used  for  small  holes,  such  as  we 
make  for  screws.  In  this  case  the  hole  must  be  coun- 
tersunk to  receive  the  screw  head,  when  flat-headed 
screws  are  used.  The  countersink  bit  is  shown  in  the 
cut,  and  its  purpose  is  more  fully  explained  in  the  chap- 
ter on  screws. 

17.  The  Spokeshave.  The  spokeshave  is  practically  a 
short  plane  with  handles  at  the  side  so  that  the  tool 
may  be  drawn  or  pushed.  It  may  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  screws  to  take  light  or  heavy  shavings,  and 


30  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

is  used  principally  to  smooth  curved  surfaces.      The 
forming  of  a  hammer  handle  is  a  good  illustration  of 


FIG.  41.    The  Iron  Spokeshave 

the  kind  of  work  it  will  do.  It  may  be  worked  toward 
or  away  from  the  worker,  and  is  an  exceedingly  handy 
tool. 


CHAPTER  IV 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND   METHODS   OF  WORK 

18.  Hammer.    The  carpenter's  hammer  is  used  prin- 
cipally to  drive  or  withdraw  nails. 

The  various  trades  have  hammers  made  specially  for 
their  needs;    thus  we  have  machinists',   roofers',  up- 
holsterers', stonecutters',  and  other  ham- 
mers, but  the  claw  hammer  shown  in  the 


FIG.  42.    The  Claw  Hammer 

sketch  is  the  one  commonly  used  by  work- 
ers in  wood. 

The  head  a  (Fig.  43)  is  of  steel,  with  the  face  b  spe- 
cially hardened  so  that  it  may  not  be  dented  by  the  nails. 
Notice  the  length  of  the  handle  h.  This  length  did 
not  simply  happen.  Had  it  been  intended  to  hold  the 
tool  in  the  position  shown  at  A,  the  handle  would  not 
have  been  made  so  long.  The  proper  position  is  that 
shown  at  B.  Position  A  is  frequently  taken  by  begin- 
ners, and  should  be  studiously  avoided. 

31 


32 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


A   nail   may  be  withdrawn  with   the   claw,  and   be 
kept  straight  for  further  use  by  a  little  care.     Having 


Withdrawing 
a  Nail 


Correct  Position,  B 

FIG.  43.    Using  the  Hammer 

started  the  nail  slightly,  place  a  small  block  of  wood 
under  the  hammer  head,  as  shown  at  C.  Should  the 
nail  be  an  unusually  long  one,  the  size  of  the  block 
may  be  increased  as  the  nail  comes  out. 


<aMMB 


FIG.  44.    Common  Forms  of  Nail  Punch,  or  " Set" 

In  driving  nails  care  must  always  be  taken  not  to  mar 
the  surface  of  the  wood  by  striking  the  nail  head  after 


MISCELLANEOUS   TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF   WORK      33 

it  has  become  even  with  the  surface,  as  this  produces  a 
depression  and  ruins  any  fine  surface. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  sink  the  nail  head  below  the  surface, 
a  nail  punch,  or  set,  is  used.  This  is  always  necessary 
when  the  surface  is  to  be  planed  after  the  nailing. 

19.  The  Mallet.    The  mallet  might  be  described  as  a 
hammer  with  a  wooden  head,  and  is  used  whenever  we 
^    wish  to  deliver  a  blow  which  shall  be 
A    less  concentrated  than  that  of  the 

H 


FIG.  45.    The  Mallet 

hammer.  It  is  used  in  certain  kinds 
of  heavy  chiseling,  such  as  house 
framing,  and  gives  a  blow  which  does  not  shatter  the 
tool  handle  as  a  hammer  would. 

The  use  of  the  mallet  is  well  illustrated  by  the  mak- 
ing of  a  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  the  chisel  and  mallet 
being  used  to  cut  the  opening  known  as  the  mortise,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  46. 

20.  Screw-Driver.  The  screw-driver  is  perhaps  the 
most  common  of  household  tools,  and  is  probably  abused 
more  than  any  other.  The  handle  is  usually  flattened 
so  that  the  hand  may  grip  it  more  tightly,  but  occasion- 
ally a  round  or  fluted  handle  is  seen. 


34 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


Patent  spiral  screw-drivers  have  come  into  use  in 
recent  years,  but  where  considerable  force  is  required 
the  brace  and  screw-driver  bit  are  more  effective. 


FIG.  46.    Cutting  a  Mortise 

21.  Sandpaper.  "  Sandpaper  is  the  last  resort  of  a 
poor  workman."  This  statement  has  been  made  by 
many  teachers  to  many  thousands  of  students,  and  is 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF  WORK     35 

true  in  many  cases ;  but  there  are  certain  kinds  of  work 
where  sandpaper,  if  properly  used,  is  allowable. 


FIG.  47.   The  Screw-Driver 

It  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  surface  which 
has  been  sandpapered  has  become  "gritty,"  i.e.  the  fine 
sand  has  come  off  and  is  more  or  less  imbedded  in  the 
wood.  Consequently  sandpapering  must  not  be  done 
until  all  tool  work  has  been  finished,  as  the  grit  will 
take  the  edge  off  the  best  tool, 
and  the  finer  the  edge  the  more 
quickly  will  it  be  ruined. 

Again,  a  sandpapered  surface 
is  always  a  scratched  surface, 
and  the  finest  of  scratched  sur- 
faces cannot  compare  with  the 
perfectly  smooth,  satiny  sur- 
face produced  by  a  sharp  plane. 
However,  there  are  many  places  ^  /  ;  ^^  \===I2!ii 

where    neither   the   plane   nor 

11  i  i  i     FIG.  48.  An  Exercise  involving 

spokeshave   can   be   used,  and         the  Use  Of  Sandpaper 
here  it  is  allowable  to  use  sand- 
paper after  the  tool  work  has  been  carried  as  far  as 
practicable. 


36  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 

Fig.  48  is  a  case  where  sandpaper  may  be  used  with 
propriety.  The  bevels  in  this  lesson  are  to  be  chiseled 
and  then  sandpapered  with  a  sandpaper  block,  —  the 
block  in  this  case  being  simply  a  small  piece  of  wood 
with  square  edges,  about  which  the  sandpaper  is  fastened 
closely. 

Curved  articles,  such  as  the  hammer  handle,  must  dis- 
pense with  the  block,  the  sandpaper  being  held  in  the 
hand. 

22.  Squaring  up  Stock.  This  term  simply  means  to 
reduce  a  piece  of  sawed  or  rough  lumber  to  one  having 
smooth,  flat  sides  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  of 
definite  length,  breadth,  and  thickness  (see  Fig.  49). 

First.  Straighten  one  face  with  fore  plane,  jack  plane,  or  jointer, 
and  smooth  with  smoothing  plane.  This  face,  called  the 
working  face,  becomes  the  basis  from  which  all  the  other 
sides  are  squared. 

Second.  Plane  one  of  the  adjoining  edges  and  make  square  with 
the  working  face.  This  edge,  known  as  the  joint  edge,  must 
be  thoroughly  tested  throughout  its  entire  length  with  the 
try-square,  and  must  be  square  with  the  working  face  at 
every  point. 

Third.  Set  marking  gauge  at  required  width  and  with  gauge 
block  against  the  joint  edge,  gauge  a  fine  line  on  working  face. 

Fourth.  Plane  down  second  edge  to  gauge  line,  just  drawn, 
squaring  the  edge  with  working  face. 

Fifth.  Set  gauge  to  required  thickness  and  gauge  line  on  both 
edges  from  working  face. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF  WORK     37 

Sixth.  Plane  face  parallel  to  working  face  down  to  the  two 
gauge  lines.  This  gives  the  required  thickness.  It  only 
remains  now  to  secure  the  required  length. 


Joint  Edge     !l  |>^ 


F 


Knife  Lines 


Joint  Edge       "\\0* 


G  H 

FIG.  49.   The  Successive  Steps  in  squaring  up  Stock 

Seventh.  Square  knife  line  around  the  four  smoothed  sides  with 
knife  and  try-square  as  near  one  end  as  possible,  carefully 
observing  the  precautions  given  in  Chapter  II. 

Eighth.  From  the  line  just  drawn,  measure  the  required  length 
along  edge  of  working  face  and  square  a  line  on  the  four 
sides  at  the  last  point,  as  at  first  end. 


38 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


Ninth.  Block-plane  first  end  to  knife  lines.  If  the  second  line 
is  more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  end  of  block, 
saw  to  the  knife  line  with  hacksaw,  and  block-plane  smooth 
and  square. 

^a  The  above  method  should 

always  be  followed  in  pre- 
paring stock  for  laying  out 
the  exercise. 

23.  Laying  Out.  Let  it  be 
assumed  that  the  exercise  to 
be  executed  is  the  middle  lap 
joint  shown  at  A,  Fig.  50. 


11      No.l 

No.2    " 

First.  Square  up  stock,  leaving 
ends  rough. 

Second.  Layoff  the  length  of  each 
piece,  in  this  case  4£  inches, 
with  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
between  for  sawing,  as  at  a. 

Third.  Square  all  the  lines 
around  four  sides. 

Fourth.  Saw  to  end  lines  and 
block-plane  ends. 

Fifth.    Lay  off  width  of  opening 
in  piece  No.  1  and  square 
lines  across  face  and  half- 
way down  on  both  edges. 
Sixth.    Measure  length  of  lap  on  No.  2,  square  the  line  across 
bottom  and  halfway  up  the  sides.     Gauge  the  horizontal 
lines  II  from  working  face. 


Fio.  50.  Successive  Steps  in  lay- 
ing out  and  making  a  Middle 
Lap  Joint 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF  WORK     39 


Seventh.  Saw  pieces  ISTo.  1  and  No.  2  apart  and  block-plane  ends. 
Eighth.  Saw  to  the  lines,  chisel,  and  fit  the  pieces. 

Although  the  above  is  the  method  of  laying  out  a  typi- 
cal joint,  each  problem  will  require  special  treatment  and 
here  the  student  will  be 
guided  by  his  instructor. 

24.  Securing  Parts. 
Many  articles  made  of 
wood  consist  of  several 
pieces  fastened  together. 

When  two  pieces  are 
fitted  together  the  sur- 
faces of  contact  are  called 
a  joint.  There  are  many 
kinds  and  shapes  in  join- 
ery, and  usually  some 
extra  fastening  is  re- 
quired to  hold  the  pieces 
together.  These  aids  are 

glue,   nails,   and    SCreWS  ;  FIG.  51.    The  Hand  Screw 

while  on  heavy  construction  still  others,  such  as  wedges, 
pins,  and  dowels  are  used.  The  first  three  are  com- 
monly used  in  small  work. 

Glue  is  of  two  kinds,  fish  and  animal.  Both  are  made 
from  refuse  matter,  —  animal  glue  being  manufactured 
from  such  products  as  bone,  horn,  hoofs,  and  hide. 


40 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


The  dry  glue  in  the  form  of  chips  must  be  dissolved 
in  water  and  heated,  being  applied  while  hot.  Liquid 
glues  sold  in  cans  ready  for  use  are  now  very  common 
and  require  no  heating. 

In  making  a  glued  joint  it  is  usually  necessary  to  hold 
the  pieces  tightly  together  until  the  glue  has  set,  or  hard- 
ened, and  as  this  takes  some  time,  hand  screws  built  on 
the  principle  of  the  vise  are  resorted  to.  Fig.  52  shows 


FIG.  52.    Method  of  using  the  Hand  Screw 

two  pieces  glued  together  and  fastened  in  a  pair  of 
hand  screws.  Care  must  always  be  taken  to  keep  the 
jaws  of  the  latter  parallel.  At  a  this  is  shown  done 
properly,  while  at  6  is  shown  a  careless  method  which, 
of  course,  will  spoil  the  joint. 

In  gluing  on  the  end  grain  a  preliminary,  or  sizing, 
coat  of  glue  must  first  be  made  to  fill  up  the  pores, 
which  act  very  much  like  a  sponge.  This  coat  should 
be  allowed  to  dry,  or  partially  dry,  before  applying  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF  WORK      41 


FIG.  63. 

Miter  Joint 
at  Corner 
of  Picture  Frame 


final  coat;  otherwise  the  pieces  will  be  held  weakly, 
if  at  all.  Beginners  are  inclined  to  use  too  large  a 
quantity,  and  this  tendency  should  be  avoided. 

In  some  cases  nails  are  used  together 
with  the  glue,  as  at  the  corners  of  pic- 
ture frames.  It  is  customary  in  this 
instance  to  nail  in  only  one  direction, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  53. 

25.  Nails.  The  nails  in  common  use 
are  of  two  kinds,  cat  and  wire. 

Two  views  of  a  cut  nail  are  shown  in  Fig.  54,  a  being 
tlio  side  view  and  b  the  front  view.     Notice  that  in  the 
front  view  the  sides  converge  like  a  wedge, 
while  in  the  side  view  they  are  parallel. 
Care  must  always  be  taken  that  the 
point  does  not  enter  the  wood  as  shown 
at  c,  as  the  wood  will  be  split  by  the 
wedge  action;  d  shows  the  proper  method. 
Steel  wire  nails  are  now  in  general  use. 
They  are  made  from  wire  and  are  conse- 
quently round  in  section,  with  a  compara- 
tively sharp  point.    There  are  two  distinct 
kinds,  named  flat  head  and  bung  head. 
Flat-head  wire  nails,  as  the  name  implies,  have  thin, 
flat  heads,  which  prevent  the  nail  from  being  driven 
beneath  the  surface. 


FIG.  54.    Use  of 
Cut  Nails 


42 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


Bung-head  wire  nails,  or  brads  as  the  smaller  sizes 
are  called,  have  very  small  heads,  which  allow  the  nail 
to  be  sunk  below  the  surface.  This  is  done  by  means 
of  the  nail  punch,  or  set,  and  is  necessary  when  the  sur- 
face is  to  be  planed  after  the  nailing. 

26.  Screws.  Screws  are  much  used,  and  allow  the 
pieces  to  be  readily  taken  apart.  They  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  fiat  head  and  round  head,  and  are  of 
steel  or  brass.  Steel  screws  are  either  Uued  or  bright. 
Bright  screws  are  polished  and  blued  screws  are  pro- 
duced by  treating  the  bright  ones  with  heat  or  an  acid. 


ABC 

FIG.  55.    Methods  of  using  Screws 

Fig.  55  shows  a  flat-head  screw  at  a  and  a  round-head 
at  6.  Flat  heads  are  used  for  the  more  common  work 
where  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  screw  head  flush  (even) 
with  the  surface  or  below  it,  while  round  heads  are  used 
where  this  is  not  necessary.  In  the  latter  case  round 
heads  are  used  partly  because  they  are  more  ornamental. 
Flat  heads  must  always  be  flush  or  below  the  surface, 
and  in  all  but  the  softest  woods  it  is  necessary  not  only 
to  bore  a  hole  for  the  screw,  but  also  to  countersink  it 
with  a  countersink  bit  in  order  that  it  may  receive  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF  WORK      43 


head.  Two  methods  of  fastening  with  flat-head  screws 
are  shown  in  Fig.  55. 

Sketch  A  shows  the  two  pieces  of  wood  in  position, 
the  hole  bored  in  upper  piece  (only)  and  countersunk ; 
B  shows  the  screw  in  position.  In  this  case  the  screw 
head  is  visible.  It  is  occasionally  desirable  to  hide  the 
screw  entirely.  Sketch  C  shows  the  hole  prepared  for 
the  screw  ;  D  shows  the  screw  in  position  and  a  circular 
wooden  plug  driven  in  over  it. 
The  plug  is  then  leveled  with  the 
surface  and  the  screw  completely 
hidden. 

27.  Mechanical  Drawing.  A  me- 
chanical, or  working,  drawing  is 
quite  different  from  a  pictorial 
drawing  such  as  an  artist  produces. 
The  artist's  drawing  represents  ob-  FlG>56.  The  Difference  be- 
jects  as  they  appear,  while  the  tween  Perspective  and 

,        .  .  Mechanical  Drawing 

mechanical  drawing   represents 

them  as  they  really  are.  Tilings  in  nature  do  not  look 
as  they  are.  For  example,  when  we  stand  on  a  railroad 
track  the  rails  appear  to  converge  until  they  seem  to 
meet  in  the  distance.  We  know  that  this  is  not  the 
case,  that  the  rails  are  really  everywhere  equally  distant. 
The  optical  illusion  of  the  rails  meeting  at  the  hori- 
zon is  called  perspective.  Mechanical,  or  constructive, 


44 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


drawing  takes  no  account  of  perspective.  In  Fig.  56 
a  is  the  perspective  representation  of  a  track,  while  b 
shows  a  track  by  mechanical  drawing. 

In  a  working  drawing  more  than  one 
view  is  necessary  to  show  the  true  shape 
of  an  object. 

In  Fig.  57  is  shown  the  mechanical  draw- 
ing of  a  cylinder,  —  the  front  view,  as  its 
name  implies,  being  the  image  it  would 
make  in  a  mirror  held  before  it  vertically, 

FIG.  57.  Median-          .    ,  ,       .  .  ,  ,          , 

ical  Drawingof  anc*  ^ne  *°P  view  ^ae  image  it  would  make  in 
a  Cylinder        a  mirror  held  directly  over  it  horizontally. 


Top 


S"- 


Front 


Side 


FIG.  68.    Mechanical  Drawing  of  End  Lap  Joint 

Occasionally  three  views  are  necessary.     Fig.  58  a 
shows  the  front,  top,  and  side  views  of  an  end  lap  joint. 


MISC  KLL  A. \KOUS   TOOLS   AND    METHODS  OF  WORK      45 


FIG.  59.    Drawing  Board  showing  T  Square  and  Triangles  in  Position 

The  complete  working  drawing  of  this  joint,  with  all 
the  necessary  dimensions,  is  shown  at  b. 

In  making  drawings  of  this  kind  the  greatest  accuracy 
is  required  and  special  instruments  are  necessary. 

The  drawing  board  on  which  the  paper  is 
fastened  must  be  perfectly  flat,  with  one  of 
its  edges  straight. 


H.5.&CO 


FIG.  GO.    The  T  Square 


The  T  square  is  used  for  guiding  the  pencil 
or  pen  when  drawing  horizontal  lines. 
The  two  triangles  1 1  (Fig.  59)  are  used  for  drawing 
vertical  and  oblique  lines,  and  a  pair  of  compasses  is 


46 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


needed  for  circles  and  arcs  of  circles.  Each  triangle  con- 
tains one  right  angle,  the  one  on  the  left  being  known 
as  a  thirty-sixty  triangle  because  the  two  remaining 
angles  are  thirty  degrees  and  sixty  degrees  respectively. 
The  one  on  the  right  is  called  a  forty-five-degree  triangle 
because  it  has  two  forty-five-degree  angles. 

The  position  of  T  square  and  triangle  when  drawing 
vertical  lines  is  that  shown  in  the  sketch,  the  line  being 

drawn  from  the  T  square 
upward.  Horizontal 
lines  are  drawn  from  left 
to  right. 

The  rule  used  in  me- 
chanical drawing  is 
called  a  scale,  and  should 
not  be  used  for  draw- 

FIG.  61.   The  Triangles  used  in  Mechan-     ing    lines.       Its    purpose 
ical  Drawing 

is  measuring. 

In  making  a  drawing  the  first  step  is  to  determine 
the  spacing.  The  size  of  the  paper  may  be  measured, 
the  number  of  views  are  known,  and  also  the  size  of 
each.  The  views  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  spaces 
between  will  be  in  good  proportion.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  make  first  a  free-hand  sketch,  putting  on  dimen- 
sions and  figuring  the  spaces  before  beginning  actual 
work  on  the  mechanical  drawing.  Fig.  62  at  a  shows 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  OF  WORK      47 


a  free-hand  sketch  of  a  single  dovetail  joint,  and  b  the 
mechanical  drawing  complete. 

All  dimensions  must  be  given,  and  as  far  as  possible 
they  should  be  so  placed  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 


FIG.  62.    Drawings  of  a  Single  Dovetail  Joint 

clearness  of  the  drawing.  Neat,  small  arrowheads  and 
plain,  clear  figures  add  to  the  general  appearance,  just 
as  does  careful  lettering  in  titles  and  all  printed  words. 


48  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 

A  drawing  which  is  made  the  exact  size  of  the  object 
represented  is  known  as  a  full-sized  drawing ;  but  for 
large  objects  such  a  method  would  necessitate  large  and 
unhandy  sheets  of  drawing  paper.  It  is  customary  in 
such  cases  to  make  what  is  called  a  scale  drawing. 

A  scale  drawing  may  be  half,  quarter,  or  eighth  size, 
and  the  fact  is  printed  under  the  title  in  smaller  letters, 
thus  :  \  inch  =  1  inch,  or  |  inch  =  1  inch. 

Other  scales  may  be  used.  In  map  making,  for  ex- 
ample, a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  may  represent  one,  ten, 
or  even  a  hundred  miles.  Whatever  scale  is  used,  how- 
ever, the  dimensions  must  always  give  the  exact  size  of 
the  object  represented. 


ELEMENTARY    WOODWORKING 

PABT  II 


49 


CHAPTER  V 

WOOD 

28.  Lumbering  and  Milling.    It  is  well  to  remember, 
when  using  wood  for  any  purpose,  that  it  was  once  part 


FIG.  63.    The  Forest,  Norway  Spruce,  Bavaria.  Germany 

of  a  living  tree  which  had  roots,  bark,  leaves,  and  flowers, 
and  that  the  tree  began  life  as  a  little  sapling,  wliich 


52 


ELEMENTARY    WOODWORKING 


grew  taller  and  larger  for  years  before  it  could  be  called 
a  tree,  and  that  it  was  between  fifty  and  a  hundred 
years  old  before  it  was  large  enough  to  cut  down  for 
timber. 

The  lumberman  selects  trees  which  have  large,  straight 
trunks.     They  are  usually  cut  with  the  ax,  although  the 


FIG.  64.    Felling  a  Tree 

first  cut  is  often  made  partially  through  the  trunk  with  a 
saw.  The  branches  are  then  chopped  off  and  the  body  of 
the  tree  cut  into  lengths  convenient  for  handling.  They 
are  rolled  into  a  stream  and  floated  down  the  river  to  a 
sawmill,  or,  in  case  there  is  no  river  near  by,  are  carted 
on  sleds  or  wagons  to  the  railroad  and  thence  to  the  mill. 


WOOD 


53 


The  cutting  of  the  trees  is  usually  done  in  winter, 
the  floating  of  the  logs,  or  river  driving  as  it  is  called, 
beginning  with  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  the  spring. 
River  driving  is  a  very  interesting  and  dangerous  busi- 
Logs  will  often  get  caught  side  wise  and  the  whole 


ness. 


river  from  shore  to  shore  become  jammed  so  tightly 


FIG.  65.    A  Skid  way  of  Adirondack  Spruce 

that  hundreds  of  thousands  of  logs  are  stopped  in  their 
course,  forming  an  immense  dam  which  the  lumbermen 
call  a  log  jam. 

To  break  up  this  jam  very  often  requires  much  labor 
and  grent  daring  on  the  part  of  the  drivers,  who  wear 


54 


FIG.  67.    Log  Boom  and  Lumber  Piles  at  Tupper  Lake,  N.Y. 


FIG.  08.    A  Modern  Gang  Saw  —  Interior  of  Modern  Sawmill 
55 


56 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


spiked  shoes  and  are  armed  with  long  poles  having  sharp 
steel  points.  When  such  a  jam  breaks  up,  the  crashing 
of  the  logs  and  rush  of  water  can  be  heard  for  miles. 

Having  finally  reached  the  mill,  the  logs  float  in  the 
river,  inclosed  in  a  log  boom,  until  the  mill  men  are 
ready  to  saw  them  into  planks. 


FIG.  69.    A  Modern  Sawmill 

The  boom  consists  of  logs  chained  together  and 
stretched  across  the  river  just  as  a  fence  is  built  on 
land  to  inclose  cattle. 

The  sawmill  of  to-day  is  a  mass  of  automatic 
machinery,  and  after  the  log  enters  it  is  not  touched 


57 


58  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

by  human  hands  until  it  comes  out  as  lumber  of  various 
sizes  ready  to  be  loaded  on  boats  or  cars. 

Logs  are  sawed  into  timber,  planks,  or  boards,  and 
these  forms  are  called  lumber. 

Timber  refers  to  all  of  the  largest  sizes,  such  as  beams 
and  joists.  Planks  are  wide  strips  over  one  inch  thick, 


FIG.  71.   A  Large  Band  Saw 


and  boards  are  one  inch  or  less  in  thickness,  varying  in 
width  and  length.  Lumber  may  be  planed  at  a  planing 
mill,  and  is  then  known  as  dressed  lumber.  It  may  be 
dressed  on  one,  two,  or  all  sides.  Dressed  stock  which 
is  free  from  knots,  shakes,  and  sapwood  is  called  dear. 


WOOD 


59 


Fig.  72.  End  of  Log,  showing 
Annual  Rings  and  Medul- 
lary Rays 


By  examining  the  end  of  a  log  we  can  learn  a  great 

deal  of  the  life  of  the  tree.     It  is  made  up  of  a  number 

of  irregular  rings  and  of  lines 

radiating  from  the  center  and 

running  in  nearly  straight  lines 

toward  the  bark. 

The  number  of  rings  tells  us 

the  age  of  the  tree,  as  a  new 

ring  is  added  each  year. 

As  the  tree  grows,  the  old 

wood  near  the  center  becomes 

compressed    and    dry  and    is 

known  as  the  heartwood,  while 

that  portion  between  the  heartwood  and  bark  is  called 

sapwood. 

In  some  woods  the  dif- 
ference between  the 
heartwood  and  sapwood 
is  very  marked.  In 
ebony,  for  instance,  the 
heartwood  is  coal  black 
and  the  sapwood  white. 
The  sketch  shows  half 
a  log,  the  annual  rings 

being  indicated,  and  also  the  radial  lines,  called  medul- 
lary rays. 


Fin.  73.    Log  cut  lengthwise,  showing 
how  "  Grain  "  is  formed 


60 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING- 


FIG.  74.    Showing  Weather 
Checks  and  "  Shake  " 


Looking  at  the  length  of  the  log  we  see  that  the 

lines  in  a  board,  which  we  call  the  grain,  are  really 

the  edges  of  the  annual  rings. 

It  often  happens  in  the  forest 
that  the  wind  sways  the  trees 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  an- 
nual rings  separate  and  slide  one 
within  the  other ;  this  produces 
8  a  defect  in  the  wood  called  a 
shake  (see  s,  Fig.  74). 

There  are  other  characteris- 
tics of  wood  known  as  icarping 
and  shrinkage. 
After  a  tree  has  been  cut  down  the  cut  end  at  first 

looks  like  Fig.  72.      If  it  is  allowed   to  lie  for  some 

time  exposed  to  the  weather,  its 

appearance   changes    to    Fig.  74. 

This   is   due   to   the   evaporation 

of  the  sap,  and  as  there  is  more 

sap  toward  the  outside,  the  shrink- 
age is  greatest  there  and  becomes 

less  toward  the  center  where  the 

heartwood   is   comparatively  dry. 

This   is   an   important   fact   to 

know,  because  if   we  had  cut  the  log,   while  it  was 

still   green,   into    planks,    as   shown    in    Fig.  75,   the 


FIG.  75 


WOOD 


61 


boards  would  have  curled  up  or  warped,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  70. 

Besides  warping,  the  evaporation  of  the  sap  causes 
'the  whole  tree  to  shrink  in  diameter,  and  consequently 
our  planks  will  tend  to  become  narrower.  This  is 
called  shrinkage,  and  in  some  woods  amounts  to  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  which  means  that  a 
plank  sawed  twelve  inches  wide  will,  after  a  few 
months,  measure  only  eleven  and 
three  quarter  inches. 

When  we  construct  anything  in 
wood  we  must  always  consider  how 
the  object  will  be  affected  by  warp- 
ing and  shrinkage,  remembering 
that  the  shrinkage  is  only  across 
the  grain. 

Let  us  consider  the  problem  of  constructing  a  draw- 
ing board  to  see  how  warping  and  shrinkage  may  be 
overcome. 

If  we  make  it  of  one  piece,  like  A  (Fig.  77),  the  board 
will  soon  change  its  shape  to  that  shown  in  B,  which 
would  make  it  useless  for  mechanical  drawing,  as  a  per- 
fectly flat  surface  is  necessary.  We  can  overcome  the 
warping  by  screwing  heavy  cleats  on  one  side  across 
the  grain,  as  shown  at  C.  The  cleats  would  need  to  be 
heavy  or  the  warping  force  would  bend  them. 


FIG.  76.    Showing  Effect 
of  Warping 


62 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


A  better  way  would  be  to  build  the  board  up  of  sev- 
eral narrow  strips  glued  together,  as  the  warping  of  one 
would  be  counteracted  by  the  warping  of  its  neighbors 
in  opposite  directions ;  but  to  make  doubly  sure,  cleats 
fastened  with  tongue  and  groove  joint  should  be  added 
at  the  ends,  as  shown  at  D.  This  has  an  advantage 
over  the  first  method,  as  the  cleats  in  0  are  often  in 
the  way  and  make  the  board  clumsy  to  handle. 


FIG.  77.    A  Study  in  Construction.     Methods  of  overcoming 
Warping  and  Shrinkage 


The  student  will  find  many  evidences  about  the  house 
of  how  the  woodworker  has  tried  to  prevent  warping 
and  shrinkage,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  paneled  doors, 
tables,  etc. 

The  wood  of  the  various  trees  differs  greatly  in  hard- 
ness, evenness  of  grain,  durability,  etc.,  and  every  boy 


WOOD  63 

should  know  not  only  what  our  woods  are  used  for,  but 
he  should  also  know  the  trees  when  he  sees  them. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  trees  for  many  things  besides 
wood.  They  give  us  delightful  shade  and  coolness  in 
summer ;  many  of  them  produce  delicious  fruit  and 
nuts ;  from  them  we  obtain  such  valuable  products  as 
maple  sirup  and  sugar;  while  tar,  pitch,  turpentine, 
rubber,  and  tannin  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  tree  pro- 
ducts. The  houses  we  live  in,  the  chairs  we  sit  on, — in 
fact,  most  of  our  furniture,  even  to  the  frames  of  our 
pictures,  the  cars  we  ride  in,  and  the  very  pencils  we 
write  with,  are  of  wood  which  was  once  part  of  the 
living  forest. 


CHAFIER  VI 

BROAD-LEAVED  TREES:  THE  OAKS 

Our  American  trees  may  be  divided  roughly  into  two 
classes:  (1)  those  which  keep  their  leaves  the  year 
round,  known  as  evergreens ;  (2)  those  whose  leaves 
drop  off  in  the  fall,  called  broad-leaved,  or  deciduous 
trees,  in  distinction  from  the  evergreens,  whose  leaves 
are  usually  needle-shaped. 

Among  the  broad-leaved  family  are  such  trees  as  the 
oak,  chestnut,  hickory,  maples,  elms,  etc. ;  and  among 
the  evergreens  or  cone-bearing  trees  are  the  pines, 
spruces,  hemlocks,  firs,  and  cedars. 

The  oak  family  is  a  very  important  one,  the  wood 
being  hard  and  strong  and  the  tree  a  sturdy,  healthy, 
and  well-known  specimen  of  tree  life. 

White  oak  is  perhaps  the  most  common  member  of 
the  oak  family.  It  grows  to  a  very  large  size  and  has 
a  leaf  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  79.  Observe  carefully 
the  outline  of  the  leaf  and  compare  it  with  the  sketch 
of  the  next  form. 

The  white  oak,  like  all  oaks,  bears  acorns,  and  its 
timber  is  used  as  a  standard  when  comparing  different 


66 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


kinds  of  wood.  If  we  say  that  the  strength  of  white 
pine  is  one  half,  we  mean  one  half  that  of  white  oak, 
and  in  all  timber  calculations  white  oak  is  the  standard, 
just  as  the  yard  and  mile  are  standards  of  length.  In 
work  which  requires  strength,  such  as  carriage  making, 

shipbuilding,  and  cooperage, 
white  oak  is  used  very  exten- 
sively. 

The  quartered  oak  used  so 
much  for  furniture  is  obtained 
by  cutting  the  logs  in  a  special 
manner.  The  method  of  cut- 
ting gives  a  beautiful  mottled 
effect  with  the  silver  rays 
spread  out  in  irregular  white 
splashes  on  a  dark  background. 
We  might  separate  the  oak 
into  two  distinct  groups :  (1) 
those  trees  whose  acorns  ripen 
in  one  season ;  (2)  those  which 
require  two  years.  The  acorns  of  this  latter  group  re- 
main on  the  tree  throughout  the  first  winter  and  ripen 
the  second  summer. 

To  the  first  class  belong  the  white  oak  just  men- 
tioned, the  post  oak,  chestnut  oaks,  mossy-cup  oak,  and 
live  oak. 


FIG.  79.    Typical  Leaf  of  the 
White  Oak 


TI1K    OAKS 


67 


In  the  second  class  are  the  red,  scarlet,  black,  pin, 
laurel,  and  willow  oaks. 

The  difference  in  the  leaves  of  these  trees  is  so  great 
that  we  need  never  mistake  one  for  the  other.  Notice  the 
cut  of  the  red  oak  and  compare  it  with  that  of  the  white 
oak.  The  latter  has  rounded  lobes,  while  the  red-oak 
leaf  has  sharp  points  and  the 
fingers  of  the  leaf  are  indented 
again  with  smaller  teeth. 

The  different  trees  in  the 
white-oak  family  all  have 
leaves  with  rounded  lobes,  and 
most  of  those  in  the  red-oak 
group  have  pointed  ones,  yet 
there  is  a  difference  between 
members  of  the  same  family, 
just  as  among  human  beings. 

We   can    tell    at    a    glance 
whether  a  man  is  a  negro,  a 
Chinaman,  or  a  white  man.     If    FIG.  so.  Leaf  of  the  Post  Oak 
a  white  man,  he  may  be  a  Frenchman  or  an  American ; 
and  again,  if  an  American,  he  may  belong  to  the  Jones 
family.     But  all  the  members  of  the  Jones  family  do  not 
look  alike  and  we  know  one  from  another. 

This  is  true  of  trees.     No  two  are  alike,  and  we  can 
tell  from  observation  whether  a  tree  is  an  evergreen  or 


68 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


a  broad-leaved  tree,  whether  it  belongs  to  the  white- 
oak  group ;  and  after  studying  trees  a  little  we  can  tell 
whether  a  member  of  this  group  is  a  white  oak,  a  post 
oak,  or  a  mossy-cup  oak. 

Compare  the  post-oak  leaf  (Fig.  80)  with  that  of  the 
white  oak.     There  is  not  a  great  difference  in  form,  but 

the  post-oak  leaf  is  thick,  leath- 
ery, and  dark  green,  while  the 
white  oak  has  a  beautiful  thin, 
light  green  leaf,  which  turns  red 
in  the  fall. 

The  post  oak  is  a  rougher  and 
coarser  tree  than  the  other,  and 
is  sometimes  called  iron  oak  on 
account  of  its  very  hard,  tough 
wood. 

29.  The  Mossy-Cup  Oak.    One 
of   the  most  beautiful  oaks  we 
FIG.  81.  Leaf  of  Mossy-Cup    have  in  America  grows  in   the 

South    and    West,  and    is    only 

rarely  found  in  our  parks  in  the  East.  It  is  called  the 
mossy-cup  oak  because  the  large  acorn  which  it  bears  is 
surrounded  by  a  bushy  fringe  which  almost  hides  the 
nut.  This  acorn  is  a  sight  never  to  be  forgotten.  The 
leaf  is  larger  than  that  of  the  wrhite  oak,  and  although 
the  two  leaves  look  somewhat  alike,  the  divisions  of  the 


Tin-:  OAKS  69 

mossy-cup  leaf  are  not  as  regular  as  those  of  the  white 
oak,  and  it  is  not  so  thin  and  delicate. 

Its  wood  is  very  strong  and  is  valuahle  for  many 
purposes,  such  as  boats,  carriages,  farming  implements, 
mil  road  ties,  and  cooperage. 

30.  Black  Oak  and  Black-jack  Oak.  These  two  trees 
are  usually  found  growing  in  wild  places,  and  the 


FK;.  82.    Leaves  of  Black  Oak  and  Black-Jack  Oak  (Black-Jack  on  right) 

black-jack  oak  is  often  called  barren  oak  from  the  fact 
that  it  frequents  bleak  and  barren  plains,  such  as  the 
sandy  stretches  of  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island. 

The  sketch  shows  the  difference  in  the  leaves,  that 
of    the    black-jack   having   only  three-  main    lobes,    or 


70 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


FIG.  83. 
Red 


Leaf  of 
Oak 


divisions,  while  the  black  oak 
has  five.  However,  the  leaves 
of  these  two  trees  vary  consider- 
ably, and  one  must  always  look 
for  the  typical  leaf,  which  is  the 
one  shown  in  the  sketch.  The 
black-jack  is  a  small,  shrubby 
tree,  with  branches  often  twisted 
and  contorted,  and  its  wood  is 
not  very  valuable  except  as  fuel 
or  for  making  charcoal. 


Fm.  84.  Wood  of  the  Red  Oak,  showing  three  sections.  The  one  on  the  left 
shows  annual  rings  obtained  by  a  horizontal  cut  through  the  tree.  Cen- 
tral view  shows  vertical  cut  at  center  of  tree.  View  on  right  shows  verti- 
cal cut  between  center  and  bark  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  73. 


THE  OAKS 


71 


The  acorns  require  two  seasons  for  ripening,  as  do 
those  of  the  red,  scarlet,  and  pin  oaks. 

31.  The  Red  Oak.    The  red  oak  is  one  of  our  largest 
.  and  most  noble  trees,  growing  taller  even  than  the  white 

oak,  and  may  always  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  very  large, 
shiny,  dark  green  leaves. 

Its    bark    is    also    much 
smoother  and   darker  than 
the  white  oak.     Its  acorn  is 
very    bitter    and 
,  can  easily  be  rec- 
ognized    1)}'     its 
shallow  cup  and 
by  its  large  size. 
It  is  the  largest  of  the 
two-year    acorns.      The 
wood  of  the  red  oak  is 
darker  than  that  of  the 
white,    and    is    used   in 
the  manufacture  of  fur- 
niture. 

32.  The  Scarlet  Oak.    This  tree  is  often  confused  with 
the  red,  but  a  glance  at  the  leaves  will  show  a  great 
difference.     That  of  the  scarlet  has  deeper  indentations 
and  is  much  more  slender  and  skeleton-like  in  shape.    It 


Fin.  85.    Scarlet  Oak 


72 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


takes  its  name  from  the  bright  scarlet  or  red  tinge  it 
takes  on  when  the  leaves  change  color  in  the  fall. 

33.  The  Pin  Oak.  The  pin-oak  leaf  is  much  more 
readily  confounded  with  the  scarlet  oak  than  that  of  any 
other  tree.  In  fact,  no  two  trees  have  leaves  so  nearly 
alike  as  these  two ;  yet  a  glance  at  two  typical  leaves 

placed  side  by  side  will 
show  considerable  differ- 
ence. 

The    pin-oak    leaf    is 
smaller  than  the  other, 
and  in  proportion  to  its« 
size  the  indentations  are 
not  so  deep. 

The  pin-oak  tree  has  a 
great  many  small  branchlets, 
or  stems,  which  give  the  tree 
the  appearance  of  a  bundle 
of  pins,  especially  when  the 
leaves  are  off  in  winter.  It 
FIO.  86.  Pm  Oak  js  a  beautiful  tree  and  is  no\v 

being  planted  very  extensively  as  a  shade  tree.     It  is 
hardy,  and  stands  city  air  very  well  indeed.     Its  bark 
is  rich  in  tannic  acid,  which  is  used  in  tanning  leather. 
The  oak  family  is  such  a  large  and  valuable  one  that 
we  cannot  afford  to  pass  it  over  lightly.     In  the  South 


THE  OAKS 


73 


grows  the  willow  oak,  famous  for  its  shade  and  its 
leaves,  which  resemble  those  of  the  willow.  A  little 
farther  north  we  find,  along  the  Ohio  valley,  the  shingle 
oak,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  its  wood  is  mostly 
made  into  shingles.  It  is  also  known  as  the  laurel 
oak,  because  its  leaves  are  shaped  like  those  of  the 
laurel,  although  not 
so  glossy. 

This  is  such  an 
odd  shape  for  an  oak 
leaf  that  one  would 
be  likely  to  pass  it 
by  and  not  recog- 
nize it  but  for  the 
fact  that  it  bears 
acorns.  This  is  al- 
ways the  test,  — 
"By  their  fruits  ye 
shall  know  them." 

If  we  meet  a  new  FIG.  87.    Pin  Oak  hi  Winter 

tree  which   seems 

not  to  be  an  oak  because  its  leaves  are  new  to  us,  and 

it  bears  acorns,  we  may  be  sure  it  is  an  oak. 

A  very  interesting  group  of  trees  which  come  under 
this  head  are  the  chestnut  oaks.  At  first  glance  one 
would  take  one  of  these  trees  to  be  a  chestnut,  but  it 


74 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


bears  acorns  and  must  therefore  be  an  oak.     The  sketch 
shows  the  two  leaves  side  by  side. 

Let  us  examine  them  closely.  Although  they  slightly 
resemble  each  other,  by  looking  carefully  we  see  that  the 
teeth  on  the  chestnut  leaf  are  pointed,  while  those  on 
the  chestnut  oak  are  decidedly  rounded.  There  is  also 


Chestnut 


Chestnut  Oak 


FIG.  88 


a  difference  in  proportion,  as  the  chestnut  leaf  is  long 
and  narrow,  while  that  of  the  chestnut  oak  is  broader. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  chestnut  oak,  but  their 
leaves  are  quite  similar  and  they  all  belong  to  the  white- 
oak  group  and  ripen  their  acorns  in  one  season.  They 
grow  to  a  large  size,  one  famous  from  Revolutionary 


THE  OAKS 


75 


times  at  Fishkill-on-the-Hudson  measuring  seven  feet  in 
diameter.  The  acorns  are  sweet  and  are  eagerly  sought 
after  by  the  squirrels. 

The  wood  is  durable  in  exposed  places  and  is  used  for 
cooperage,  railroad  ties,  and  fencing. 

34.  The  Live  Oak.  No  list  of  American  oaks  would 
be  complete  without  the  live  oak.  This  is  a  southern 
tree  and  is  remarkable  in  many  ways.  Its 
leaf  has  no  indentations,  remains  green  all 
winter,  and  is  thick  and  leathery. 

The  wood  is  extremely  heavy,  a  cubic 
foot  weighing  nearly  sixty  pounds.  It  is 
as  hard  as  it  is  heavy,  and  although  it  takes 
a  high  polish  and  has  a  fine  grain,  it  soon 
dulls  the  edge  of  a  tool. 

Before  the  age  of  steel,  when  all  ships  FIG.  89.  Leaf  of 
were  wooden,  it  was  much  used  in  ship- 
building, and  the  government  bought  large  tracts  of  land 
where  live  oak  grew  abundantly,  so  that  the  United 
States  navy  should  never  lack  the  necessary  timber. 

It  grows  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  south  from  Vir- 
ginia, and  along  the  Gulf  to  Texas. 


CHAPTER  VII 

BROAD-LEAVED  TREES:  THE  MAPLES 

It  is  the  maple  family  to  which  we  are  indebted  for 
much  of  the  glorious  coloring  of  our  autumn  landscapes. 

It  is  true  that  all  trees  play  their  part  in  the  general 
color  scheme,  but  for  the  brilliant  reds  and  scarlets  of 
the  fall  foliage  we  must  look  to  the  maples. 

When  we  think  of  the  word  maple  we  are  apt  to 
have  visions  of  other  things  besides  trees.  Maple  and 
sugar  or  sirup  seem  to  go  together,  and  in  fact  some  of 
us  do  not  know  that  there  are  other  maples  besides  the 
sugar  maple. 

This  fine  American  tree  is  one  of  which  we  should  be 
proud.  Not  only  is  it  a  handsome  large  tree,  valuable 
for  its  shade  and  the  beautiful  colors  it  wears  in  the  fall, 
but  its  wood  is  hard  and  valuable,  —  it  is  often  called 
rock  maple,  —  and  besides  all  these  good  qualities  it  fur- 
nishes us  with  our  maple  sirup  and  sugar. 

The  process  of  making  maple  sugar  is  quite  interest- 
ing and  may  be  divided  into  two  stages,  —  gathering  the 
sap,  and  boiling  down. 

76 


THE  MAPLES  77 

Very  early  in  the  spring,  often  as  early  as  March, 
the  sap  begins  to  flow  up  through  the  tree.  The  farmer 
knows  by  experience  when  to  tap  the  tree,  which  he 
does  by  boring  a  three-quarter  inch  hole  with  an  auger. 
Into  this  hole  he  inserts  a  spout  of  wood  or  iron  through 
which  the  lifeblood  of  the  tree  —  the  sap  —  flows  in  a 
steady  drip,  drip,  drip,  into  a  pail  or  bucket  placed  beneath 
to  catch  it. 

The  sap  comes  in  drops  about  as  regularly  as  the  ticks 
of  a  clock,  one  a  second.  This  continues  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  until  each  tree  has  yielded  something  like 
twenty-five  gallons.  As  it  takes  five  gallons  of  sap  to 
produce  a  pound  of  sugar,  each  tree  yields  about  five 
pounds  of  maple  sugar.  In  New  England  and  New  York 
there  are  maple  groves  containing  thousands  of  trees, 
and  one  farm  alone  produces  five  thousand  pounds  of 
sugar  in  a  season. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  this  excessive  bleeding  of  the 
trees  does  not  kill  them  unless  improperly  done.  The 
farmer  must  not  tap  them  at  the  wrong  time  nor  in  too 
many  places.  The  tree  will  stand  a  great  deal  if  prop- 
erly treated,  but  harsh  treatment  will  kill  it. 

The  boiling  process  is  very  simple.  The  sap  is  poured 
into  large  boilers  or  evaporators  and  boiled  until  it  be- 
comes a  sirup.  The  old-fashioned  test  to  find  out  when 
the  boiling  had  been  carried  on  long  enough  was  to  drop 


78 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


a  little  of  the  hot  sirup  into  the  snow  or  into  a  cold  dish. 
If  it  hardened,  the  boiling  was  finished. 

Fig.  90  shows  the  leaf  of  the  sugar  maple,  also  that 
leaf  which  is  most  often  confounded  with  it,  viz.,  the 
Norway  maple.  Observe  the  two  closely.  The  sugar 
maple  has  blunt,  rounded  points  and  is  thick,  while  the 


Sugar  Maple 


Norway  Maple 


FIG.  90 


Norway  has  sharp  points,  which  are  more  numerous, 
and  the  leaf  is  much  thinner  and  more  delicate. 

The  sugar  maple  grows  taller  and  does  not  cast  so 
dense  a  shade  as  the  Norway,  which  is  a  low-growing 
tree  with  close,  dark  foliage. 

35.  The  Silver  Maple.  The  one  which  naturally  comes 
next  in  the  list  is  the  silver,  soft.,  or  white  maple,  as  it  is 


THE  MAPLES 


79 


variously  termed.  From  the  ground  up  to  the  topmost 
leaf  the  whole  character  of  this  tree  suggests  the  word 
thoroughbred.  Clean-cut,  refined,  strong,  and  healthy 
in  every  detail,  the  silver  maple  is  a  thing  of  beauty 

and  might  truly  be  called 
the  acme  of  perfection  in 
tree  life.  Its  name  is 


The  Silver  Maple 


FIG.  91 


The  Red  Maple 


derived  from  the  fact  that  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  is 
silvery  white.  The  upper  side  being  dark  green  gives 
a  beautiful  effect  when  the  wind  stirs  the  foliage,  which 
as  a  whole  has  the  grace  and  drooping  effect  of  the 
American  elm. 


80 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


This  description  does  not  always  fit,  however,  as  it 
is  planted  extensively  in  cities  where  horses  gnaw  the 
fine  bark ;  smoke,  soot,  and  coal  gas  discolor  the  leaves ; 
and  the  caterpillars  complete  the  work  of  destroying  its 

beauty.  Yet  it  still  lives, 
even  if  it  does  not  thrive 
under  such  harsh  treat- 
ment. Its  wood  is  white, 
soft,  and  not  very  valu- 
able. 

36.  The  Red  Maple.  A 
relative  of  the  silver  ma- 
ple and  one  which  might 
be  mistaken  for  it  is  the 
red,  swamp,  or  wild  ma- 
ple. It  is  this  tree  which 
displays  the  brightest  reds 
in  autumn.  Referring  to 
the  sketch  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  leaf  is  smaller 
and  three-fingered  in- 
stead of  five,  as  in  the 
silver  variety.  The  stem  of  this  leaf  is  also  red  during 
the  entire  season,  as  if  it  could  not  wait  for  autumn. 

37.  The  Sycamore  Maple.  In  the  rows  on  rows  of 
maples  so  common  in  our  towns  and  cities  one  will 


FIG.  92.   The  Sycamore  Maple 


mi;  MAPLES 


81 


often  find  a  leaf  larger,  heavier,  and  coarser  than  any 
of  the  others.  This  variety,  like  the  Norway,  is  an 
importation  from  Europe,  known  as  the  sycamore  maple 
because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  sycamore  leaf.  It  is 
easily  identified  by  its  large  size,  coarseness,  the  very 
long,  thick  red  stem,  and  by  the  fact  that  its  entire 
edge  is  finely  toothed, — in 
which  point  it  differs  from 
all  the  foregoing  varieties. 
Its  value  as  a  shade  tree  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  Norway, 
and  in  Europe  it  is  often 
planted  in  preference  to  all 
other  maples. 

38.  The  Striped  Maple. 
Growing  in  the  shade  of 
other  trees  and  forming  part 
of  the  undergrowth  of  our 
North  woods  is  a  small  tree 
known  as  the  striped  maple, 
from  the  stripes  which  run 
up  and  down  its  bark.  The  New  England  name  for  this 
little  mountain  tree  is  mooseivood,  from  the  fact  that 
the  moose  is  very  fond  of  the  bark  and  twigs,  which 
form  his  chief  food  in  winter.  The  leaves  are  quite 
large,  but  very  thin,  soft,  and  delicate. 


FIG.  93.    The  Striped  Maple,  or 
Moose  wood 


82 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


39.  Maple  Keys.  The  fruit,  or  seeds,  of  all  the  maples 
are  known  as  winged.  The  flat,  thin  part  gives  the 
seed  a  swirling  motion  as  it  drops  from  the  tree.  This 
is  the  way  nature  has  of  spreading  the  seed  over  a 
large  area  so  that  more  trees  may  be  started  in  life. 
Many  tree  seeds  are  winged,  but  the  maple  seed  or 
key  is  so  large  and  so  common  that  every  one  must 
at  some  time  have  noticed  it. 

40.  The  Ash-Leaved  Maple.  The 
ash-leaved  maple  is  a  leaf  very  com- 
mon in  our  parks.  It  has  no  resem- 
blance to  other  maple  leaves,  yet  it 
bears  the  unmistakable  maple  key, 
— "  By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know 
them."  It  is  therefore  a  maple. 

The  box  elder,  or  ash-leaved  maple, 
is  interesting  because  it  is  our  only 
maple  having  a  compound  leaf ;  that 
is,  a  leaf  stem  with  several  distinct  leaflets.  Compound 
leaves  are  very  common  (notice  the  hickory  leaf  and  the 
horse-chestnut),  but  not  on  maples,  and  our  ash-leaved 
maple  is  a  curiosity.  It  delights  in  swampy  places,  but 
grows  almost  anywhere.  It  is  a  small  tree,  and  its  wood 
is  not  especially  valuable  except  for  making  paper  pulp. 
North  America  has  only  nine  varieties  of  maple,  while 
China  and  Japan  have  more  than  thirty.  Indeed,  it  is 


FIG.  94.  Maple  "Keys," 
a  Common  Form  of 
Winged  Seeds 


THE  MAPLES 


83 


to  Japan,  whose  forests  are  largely  made  up  of  maples, 
that  we  are  indebted  for  some  of  the^  most  dainty  and 
exquisite  trees  to  be  found.  The  Japan  maples  planted 
so  extensively  on  our  lawns  and  in  our  p:\rks  have  such 
a  variety  of  form  and  color 
that  no  written  description 
can  do  them  justice.  Fig.  96 
will  give  some  idea  of  their 


FIG.  95.   Ash-Leaved  Maple,  or  Box  Elder 

shape  and  delicacy.  The  colors,  which  of  course  cannot 
be  shown,  range  from  dark  purple  to  the  most  delicate 
combinations  of  white  and  green.  The  finest  of  these 
dainty  leaves  bears  a  stronger  resemblance  to  an  ostrich 
plume  than  to  anything  in  the  line  of  tree  leaves. 


84 


CHAPTER  VIII 


BROAD-LEAVED  TREES  HAVING  COMPOUND  LEAVES 

The  beginner  is  often  in  doubt  as  to  whether  a  twig 
with  several  leaves  is  a  compound  leaf  or  a  number  of 
simple  leaves.     This  is  a  very  easy  thing  to  decide.    At 
the  end  of  the  leaf  stem,  where  the  leaf  joins 
the  twig  or  branch,  is  always  a  little  bud. 
When  the  leaf  drops  off  in  the  fall 
the  bud  remains,  and  in  the  spring 
begins  to  swell  and  finally 
develops  into  a  leaf.     This 
bud  then  is  the  promise  of 
next  year's  leaf,  and  it  is 
always  found  at  the  base  of 
the  leaf  stem,  as  shown  at 

A.  There  is  no  such  bud  at 
the  base  of  the  leaflet  on  the 
compound  leaf,  as  shown  at 

B.  If  then  we  find  no  bud  at  #,  we  must  look  farther 
down  until  we  discover  it  at  <7.     This  furnishes  the  test 
and  we  know  that  our  specimen  is  a  compound  leaf. 

85 


FIG.  97.    Method  of  distinguishing 
Compound  and  Simple  Leaves 


86  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

This  class  of  leaf  is  very  common,  as  our  horse-chest- 
nuts, buckeyes,  hickories,  and  walnuts  all  have  com- 
pound leaves. 

The  horse-chestnut  is  not  a  native  American  tree,  but 
was  imported  from  Europe,  where  it  is  a  great  favorite. 
The  leaflets  number  five  or  seven,  always  an  odd  num- 


FIG.  98.   The  Horse-Chestnut 

ber,  and  they  radiate  from  one  central  point,  the  odd 
one  in  the  center  usually  being  the  largest. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  watch  these  leaves  as  they 
come  out  of  the  sticky  buds  in  the  spring.  They  unfold 
and  grow  very  rapidly  and  soon  the  tree  brings  forth 
large  pyramidal  clusters  of  beautiful  flowers. 


TREES   HAVING  COMPOUND  LEAVES 


87 


The  large,  neat  brown  nuts  which  come  later  in  the 
season  do  not  seem  to  be  very  useful,  yet  they  are  so 
solid  and  shiny  that  every  boy  delights  to  gather  them. 

An  American  tree  closely  resembling  the  horse-chest- 
nut is  the  buckeye.  The  leaflets  on  the  buckeye  leaf 
number  five,  sometimes  seven,  and  radiate  like  the  horse- 
chestnut  from  a  common  center. 


Buckeye  Hickory 

FIG.  99.    Familiar  Forms  of  Compound  Leaves 

This  tree  is  well  known  through  the  Ohio  valley, 
where  it  is  very  common,  Ohio  being  called  the  Buck- 
eye State.  The  nuts  are  not  edible,  but  the  wood  is 
very  tough  and  strong  and  is  used  extensively  in  mak- 
ing farm  implements. 


88  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

Compare  the  leaf  of  the  buckeye  and  the  hickory 
shown  in  Fig.  99.  Both  leaves  are  compound,  and  eacli 
has  five  leaflets,  but  they  are  quite  different,  because  the 
hickory  leaflets  are  arranged  on  opposite  sides  of  the  leaf- 
stalk instead  of  radiating  from  one  point. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  hickory,  including  the 
shagbark,  or  shellbark,  the  pignut,  and  pecan. 

The  name  shagbark  hickory  is  taken  from  the  peculiar 
appearance  of  the  bark,  which  hangs  in  loose  pieces 
nearly  a  foot  long  and  gives  the  tree  a  very  shaggy 
effect.  Shellbark  is  another  common  name  for  this  tree. 

The  nut  which  this  tree  bears  is  hard  and  thick,  but 
the  kernel  is  very  sweet,  and  is  considered  by  some 
superior  to  all  other  hickory  nuts. 

The  pignut  hickory  is  so  called  because  the  nuts  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  are  used  to  feed  the  pigs.  It 
is  also  called  'broom  hickory.  The  nuts  are  small  and 
become  bitter  after  having  lain  awhile.  The  wood, 
however,  like  all  the  hickories,  is  valuable,  being  hard 
and  tough.  There  is  a  difference  between  strength  and 
toughness.  Oak  is  strong,  but  not  tough.  Hickory  is 
both  hard  and  tough.  A  tough  wood  is  one  which  will 
stand  bending  without  breaking.  A  wood  which  will 
bend  easily  but  is  not  strong  cannot  be  called  tough. 
It  must  be  both  strong  and  elastic,  and  hickory  has 
both  of  these  qualities. 


TREES   HAVING  COMPOUND  LEAVES 


89 


41.  The  Pecan.  We  usually  think  of  the  pecan  nut 
as  different  from  the  hickory,  yet  they  belong  to  the 
same  family.  The  pecan  hickory  is  a  southern  tree 
which  delights  in  the  warm  climate  south  of  the  Ohio 


Black  Walnut 


Butternut 


FIG.  100 


River,  and  in  Texas  is  found  as  a  grand  forest  giant 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  producing  an  enor- 
mous crop  of  the  sweetest  and  most  delicately  flavored 
nuts.  The  leaf  has  nine  leaflets  and  occasionally  as 
many  as  fifteen. 


90  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

42.  The  Black  Walnut  and  Butternut.    Perhaps   no 
two  trees  are  so  difficult  for  the  city  boy  or  girl  to 
distinguish  as  the  butternut  and  black  walnut.     Both 
have  compound  leaves,  the  number  of  leaflets  varying 
from  nine   to  seventeen  for   the   butternut  and  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-three  for  the  black  walnut.     A  leaf 
having  fifteen  leaflets,  then,  might  belong  to  either  tree 
if  there  were  no  other  way  to  distinguish  them.     The 
teeth  on  the  black-walnut  leaflet  are  larger  and  sharper 
than  on  the  butternut,  and  the  fuzzy  stem  is  lacking. 
The  green  nuts,  too,  are  different,  the  black  walnuts 
being  just  about  the  size  and  shape  of  green  lemons, 
the  butternuts  longer  and  thinner;  but  the  unmistak- 
able feature  is  the  odor.      Having  once  smelled  the 
crushed  leaves  of  a  butternut  and  a  black  walnut,  a 
person  will  thereafter  need  no  other  test. 

The  use  of  black-walnut  lumber  for  making  furniture 
was  at  one  time  very  common.  The  great  supply  of 
this  valuable  wood  has  been  exhausted  and  other  woods 
have  become  fashionable.  It  is  still  used  for  gunstocks, 
for  which  purpose  nothing  seems  better  suited. 

Butternut  is  a  light-colored  wood,  but  takes  a  good 
polish  and  is  occasionally  used  in  cabinet  work. 

43.  The  Locusts.    The  locust  family  is  a  large  one ;  its 
members  all  bear  compound  leaves,  and  their  fruit  is  in 
the  form  of  beans  instead  of  nuts. 


TREES  HAVING  COMPOUND  LEAVES 


91 


The  common  yellow  or  black  locust  is  famous  for  its 
hard,  durable  wood,  its  delicate  light  green  leaves,  and 
its  white  flowers. 

The  tree  is  not  very  beautiful  when  the  leaves  are 
off,  but  its  wood  is  so  valuable  that  its  beauty  is  not 

considered.  The  wood  is  yel- 
low and  becomes  very  hard 
after  it  has  dried. 

The  honey  locust  is  another 
common  member  of  this  family. 


The  Locust 


FIG.  101 


The  Ilo:iey  Locust 


44.  The  Honey  Locust.  Its  leaves  are  much  finer  and 
somewhat  resemble  ferns.  It  may  always  be  known  by 
the  dangerous  sharp-pointed  thorns  which  grow  all  over 
the  tree.  These  thorns  are  unusually  large,  sometimes 


92 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


being  found  in  great  bunches  and  as  long  as  six  inches. 
Its  fruit  is  a  long,  thin,  brownish  pod,  which  is  sweet  and 
contains  little  light  brown  beans.  The  wood  is  strong 
and  durable.  , 

45.  The  Ash.  Every  boy  who  has  owned  a  rowboat 
knows  that  oars  are  made  of  wood  from  the  ash.  This 
is  because  the  oar  must  be  elastic  as  well  as  strong, 
and  the  timber  of  the  ash  tree  sup- 
plies these  two  qualities.  The  ash 
is  one  of  our  tallest  and  noblest 
forest  trees.  It  is  rather  slim  in 
build,  with  beautiful  clean  shiny 
green  foliage.  The  members  of 
this  group  seem  to  be 
fond  of  colors,  and  we 
have  the  white  ash,  red 
ash,  green  ash,  blue  ash, 
and  black  ash. 

There  are  slight  dif- 
FIG.  102.  Red  Ash  f  erences  in  the  leaves  and 

seeds,  but,  as  in  other  trees,  when  we  have  once  seen  an 
ash  seed  we  can  always  thereafter  distinguish  an  ash  tree. 
Fig.  102  shows  the  seed  of  the  red  ash.  It  is  a  winged 
seed,  with  the  seed  part  inclosed  by  the  wing. 

The  compound  leaf  of  the  white  ash  has  from  five  to 
seven  leaflets  and  the  black  ash   has  from   seven   to 


TREES  HAVING   COMPOUND  LEAVES  93 

eleven.  The  wood  is  hard,  tough,  and  elastic,  has  a 
handsome  grain,  and  is  used  for  many  purposes  besides 
making  oars,  such  as  furniture,  carriages,  and  those 
farm  implements  which  require  strength.  The  Indian 
could  find  no  better  wood  for  his  bow,  and  even  Cupid 
is  said  to  have  first  made  his  arrows  of  ash. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BROAD-LEAVED  TREES  HAVING  SIMPLE  LEAVES 

46.  The  Elm.    The  elm  is  the  well-known  shade  tree 
of  New  England.     Its  tall,  graceful  form  is  familiar  to 


FIG.  103.   The  American  Elm 


every  visitor  and  native  of  that  section  of  country,  where 
it  is  found  along  every  roadway  and  in  every  city. 

Who  can  think  of  New  England  without  its  noble 
elms  ?     It  would  indeed  be  a  different  country.     The 


94 


TREES  HAVING  SIMPLE   LEAVES 


95 


elm  may  be  said  to  represent  New  England  character, 
—  dignified,  sturdy,  graceful,  and  refined.  Being  tall, 
with  foliage  well  up,  the  general  shape  of  the  tree  gives 
the  desired  shade,  yet  does  not  obstruct  the  view ;  while 
its  stately  dignity  gives  an  air  of  comfort  and  repose  to 
the  grounds,  which  it  seems  to  protect  from  the  elements. 

Its  wood  is  valuable  for  certain  kinds 
of  work,  being  tough  and  strong,  but  it 
is  not  suitable  for  cabinetwork,  as  it  is 
difficult  to  polish.  It  is  used  consider- 
ably for  wheel  hubs  and  in  cooperage. 

Observe  the  edge  of  the  elm  leaf 
carefully.  The  teeth  not  only  curve 
gracefully  toward  the  extreme  tip  of 
the  leaf,  but  they  are  themselves  also 
toothed,  —  a  form  known  as  double- 
toothed.  The  leaf  is  coarse  and  rough 
to  the  touch,  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
birch  family,  whose  leaves  it  slightly 
resembles.  There  are  several  elms  famous  in  the  his- 
tory of  our  country.  At  Cambridge  is  the  old  elm  under 
which  George  Washington  drew  his  sword  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  American  Army  on  July  3, 1775 ;  there  are 
several  other  "Washington  Elms"  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  while  New  Haven  is  known  as  the  City  of 
Elms.  William  Penn  made  his  famous  treaty  with  the 


FIG.  104.   Leaf  of 
American  Elm 


96 


ELEMENTARY    WOODWORKING 


Indians  under  the  branches  of  a  magnificent  elrn,  which 
remained  standing  until  it  was  over  two  hundred  years 
old,  when  it  was  finally  blown  down.  The  spot  has  been 
marked  by  a  marble  column. 

The  tree  is  called  the  American,  or  white,  elm,  and  we 
have  several  other  varieties  growing  wild,  including  the 
well-known  slippery  elm,  so  called 
because  the  inner  bark  is  slippery 
and  edible. 

47.  The  Birches.  If  the  black 
birch  with  its  sweet,  aromatic  bark 
is  not  known  to  a  boy,  the  white,  or 
canoe,  birch  is  sure  to  be.  It  seems 
to  be  the  fate  of  this  beautiful  tree 
to  be  disfigured  by  every  wander- 
ing youth  who  has  strength  enough 
FIG.  105.  Leaf  of  Black  to  tear  off  a  strip  of  its  paper-like 

Birch 

bark. 

The  leaf  of  the  black,  or  sugar,  birch  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  elm  by  its  smoothness  and  thinness. 
Its  base  is  slightly  heartshaped,  the  edge  is  double- 
toothed,  the  tender  bark  on  the  twigs  is  sweet  to  the 
taste,  and  the  leaves  grow  in  pairs. 

48.  White  Birch.  The  famous  white,  paper,  or  canoe 
birch  has  a  leaf  somewhat  broader  than  the  black  variety, 
but  without  the  heartshaped  base.  Its  bark  is  its  peculiar 


97 


98 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


feature  and  cannot  be  mistaken.  It  comes  off  in  layers 
and  possesses  a  resinous  quality  which  makes  it  water- 
proof, a  fact  fully  appreciated  by  the  Indians,  who  con- 
structed their  canoes  of  it.  The  wood  is  hard  and  tough. 

49.  Gray  Birch.  A 
smaller  tree,  known  as 
the  gray  birch,  also  has 
white  bark,  but  it  is  not 
as  perfect  as  that  of  the 
canoe  birch,  does  not  peel 
in  layers,  and  has  trian- 
gular black  spots  on  the 
trunk  beneath  every 
limb. 

It  loves  barren,  rocky 
places,  abandoned  farms, 
etc.,  and  is  sometimes 
called  old  field  birch.  It 
has  a  fine,  delicate  foli- 
age, which  is  not  dupli- 
cated in  the  forest.  Each 

leaf  swings  from  a  long,  slender  stem,  and  every  passing 
breeze  gives  it  a  trembling  effect,  like  the  aspen.  The 
leaf  form  is  very  odd,  —  a  broad,  flat  base,  and  then  a 
l°ng>  graceful  curve  out  to  a  fine  point,  the  whole  edge 
being  finely  double-toothed. 


FIG.  107.   Leaf  of  Gray  Birch 


TREES   HAVING  SIMPLE   LEAVES 


99 


50.  The  Beech.  The  difference  in  the  leaf  forms  of 
the  birch  and  beech  is  very  marked.  Both  have  toothed 
edges,  but  in  the  beech  the  spaces  between  the  teeth  are 
so  remarkably  shallow  that  one  has  to  search  for  them. 


FIG.  108.    A  Remarkable  Growth  of  Beeches  in  Greater  New  York 

There  has  been  a  common  belief  for  generations  that 
the  beech  is  proof  against  lightning,  and  recent  experi- 
ments prove  that  beech  wood  offers  considerably  greater 
resistance  to  the  electric  current  than  oak,  poplar,  or 
willow  ;  so  our  ancestors  were  partly  right.  The  wood 
is  hard,  strong,  and  tough,  and  will  take  a  high  polish. 


100 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


51.  Hornbeam.  Closely  related  to  the  beeches  are  two 
little  trees  which  have  delicate  birchlike  foliage  and  wood 
of  great  hardness,  —  the  hornbeam,  or  blue  beech,  and 


FIG.  110.    Ironwood,  or  Hop  Hornbeam 


FIG.  109.    Leaf  of  Amer- 
ican Beech 

the  hop  hornbeam, 
or  ironwood. 

The    leaves   of 
these  two  varieties 
are  quite  similar,  that  of  the  ironwood  being  somewhat 
the  larger. 

The  name  hop  hornbeam  is  derived  from  the  fruit, 
which  resembles  the  hop,  and  the  name  ironwood  from 
the  great  strength  and  hardness  of  the  wood. 


TREES  HAVING  SIMPLE  LEAVES 


101 


52.  Buttonball.    No  list  of  trees  would  be  complete 
which  did  not  include  those  three  forest  giants,  button- 
ball,  tulip,  and  sweet  gum.      The  names  Tnittonwood, 
buttonball,  sycamore,  and  plane  tree,  as  the  same  tree  is 
called  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  all  apply  to  that 
fine  American  tree  which  sheds  its  bark  as  well  as  its 
leaves,  leaving  a  ghostly  monarch  of  tree  life,  which 
produces  an  enormous  crop 

of  buttonballs  so  well  known 
to  country  boys  and  girls. 
The  leaves  are  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  tree,  often 
measuring  a  foot  in  length, 
and  being  frequently  covered 
on  the  under  side  with  a 
white  down  called  fungus. 

The  wood  of  the  sycamore, 
as  it  is  incorrectly  called,  is 
valuable  for  cabinetwork,  having  a  beautiful  grain  and 
taking  a  high  polish.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  work, 
and  has  a  tendency  to  warp. 

53.  Sweet  Gum.    The  sweet-gum  tree  also  produces  a 
crop  of  balls,  or  seed  pods,  but  although  the  same  size 
as  the  buttonballs,  they  need  never  be  confused,  as  the 
gum  balls  are  covered  with  somewhat  sharp  points,  while 
the  buttonballs  are  comparatively  smooth. 


FIG.  111.    Leaf  of  Button  wood 


102 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


The  leaves  of  the  sweet  gum,  or  liquid  amber  —  so 
called  from  the  amber-colored  gum  the  tree  gives  out  — 
remind  one  of  the  starfish,  being  five-fingered  and  decid- 
edly different  from  any  leaf  in  the  forest.  The  tree 
grows  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  its 
wood  is  a  handsome  brown  color  with  fine  and  intricate 

markings.  It  warps  badly, 
but  is  valued  for  wood  turn- 
ing on  account  of  its  soft- 
ness and  even  grain. 

54.  Tulip.  The  lumber 
furnished  by  the  tulip  tree, 
commonly  called  white- 
ivood,  is  less  liable  to  warp 
than  gum  wood,  and  is  some- 
what harder.  Just  why  it 
should  be  called  white  wood 
is  not  clear,  as  it  is  much 
darker  than  white  pine  and 
of  a  greenish-yellow  color. 
The  leaf  of  the  tulip  tree  is  very  peculiar,  having  only 
four  points,  without  any  small  teeth,  and  with  an  outline 
so  odd  that  one  often  wonders  if  nature  did  not  use  a 
pair  of  scissors  in  cutting  it  out. 

Each  leaf  stands  out  aggressively  on  a  long  stem. 
The  glory  of  the  tree  —  which  gives  it  its  name  —  is 


FIG.  112.    Sweet  Gum,  or  Liquid 
Amber 


TREES  HAVING  SIMPLE  LEAVES 


103 


the  mass  of  tulip-shaped  flowers  it  bears  in  the  spring. 
They  are  large  and  brilliant,  yellowish-green  in  color, 
with  dashes  of  red,  and  develop  a  narrow,  light-brown 
cone,  which  remains  on  the  tree  all  winter.  The 
tree  thrives  best  south  of  the  Ohio  valley,  where  it 
is  frequently  found  from  five  to  seven  feet  in  diame- 
ter. The  Indians  formerly  made  their  dugout  canoes 
from  its  trunk,  and  in  some 
sections  it  is  still  called  canoe 
wood. 

55.  Basswood,  or  Linden.  A 
very  valuable  group  of  trees 

for  both  shade  and  timber  V~~~>^^  I/O^A 
are  the  basswoods,  or  lindens. 
There  are  several  varieties, 
the  European  linden  thriving 
here  as  readily  as  our  native 
varieties.  These  trees  may 
always  be  distinguished  by  FlG- 113-  TuliP' or 
the  leaves,  which  are  heartshaped  and  lopsided,  i.e.  one 
side  from  the  middle  line  being  always  larger  than  the 
other,  as  if  two  leaves  of  different  sizes  had  been  joined 
along  the  center. 

This  is  a  very  common  feature  among  certain  classes 
of  trees,  such  as  the  elms.  Another  remarkable  feature 
is  the  seed,  or  bract,  shown  in  the  sketch  (Fig.  115). 


104 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


The  tree  is  sugar-loaf  in  shape,  gives  a  dense  shade, 
and  has  sweet  flowers  so  fragrant  that  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  bee  tree,  because  the  bees  swarm  all  over  it 
in  the  summer  time.  Its  timber  is  valuable,  being  free 


FIG.  114.   American  Linden,  or  Basswood,  showing  the  Sugar-Loaf  Form 

of  the  Tree 

from  knots  and  of  such  an  even  grain  that  it  is  much 
sought  after  for  some  kinds  of  carving. 

The  familiar  cigar-store  Indian  is  usually  carved  from 
basswood. 

Among  the  broad-leaved  trees  there  are  still  several 
familiar  families,  all  loved  by  some  of  us  for  some  reason. 


TREES   HAVING   SIMPLE   LEAVES 


105 


The  willow  is  always  a  striking  tree,  not  only  because 
of  its  weeping  or  drooping  appearance,  but  also  because 
we  usually  associate  it  with  water. 

What  is  more  common  in  the  country  than  a  stream 
hidden  by  the  willows  which  crowd  its  bank  and  dip 

down    into    the    clear 
water ! 

Then,  too,  we  watch 
it  for  the  first  sign  of 
spring,  and  friends  in  dif- 
ferent states  often  vie 


r  J/^i  with  each  other  to 
discover  the  first 
pussy  willow,  the  name  given  to  the  soft,  downy  buds 
which  appear  often  before  the  snow  has  melted. 

The  willow  is  dear  to  boys,  because  on  the  green  twigs 
in  spring  the  bark  can  be  separated  from  the  wood  and  a 
whistle  or  simple  flute  manufactured. 


106  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 

The  wood  of  the  willow  is  not  very  valuable,  being 
used  chiefly  by  pulp  makers,  but  it  grows  where  no 
other  trees  can  exist,  being  found  nearly  all  over  the 
world,  and  creeping  nearer  to  the  north  pole  than  any 
other  broad-leaved  tree  except  the  birch.  It  has  over 


FIG.  116.    A  Weeping  Willow 

one  hundred  and  fifty  varieties,  which  vary  from  small 
shrubs  up  to  trees  a  hundred  feet  high.  Its  soft  and 
gentle  beauty  is  sufficient  excuse  for  its  existence. 

56.  The  Poplars.  In  the  poplars  we  have  a  group 
of  trees  similar  to  the  willows  in  some  ways  but  very 
different  in  others.  The  wood  is  weak  and  of  little 


TREES    HAVING   SIMPLE  LEAVES 


107 


use  except  for  fuel  and  paper  pulp,  but  there  the  like- 
ness ends. 

To  this  family  belongs  the  quaking  aspen,  whose 
leaves  are  continually  trembling,  —  in  fact,  the  whole 
family  is  a  restless  one,  the  constant  motion  being  due 
to  the  shape  of  the  long  stems,  which  are  flattened. 

The  people  of  Scotland  have  a 
superstition  that  it  was  of  aspen         //( 


Aspen 


FIG.  117 


Aspen  Poplar, 
or  Large-Toothed  Aspen 


wood  that  our  Saviour's  cross  was  made,  and  that  the 
tree  shivers  in  constant  remembrance  of  that  fact. 

Beside  the  quaking  aspen  is  the  large-toothed  aspen, 
the  Lombardy  poplar,  and  the  cottonwood. 


108 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


The  Lombardy  is  the  spirelike  tree  which  seems  to 
reach  toward  the  clouds,  and  its  tall,  narrow  form  is 
familiar  in  many  sections  of  our  country,  although  the 
tree  was  originally  imported  from  Europe. 

Cottonwood  and  balm  of  Gilead  are  two  well-known 
members  of  this  family.  Cottonwood  is  best  known  in 

the  West,  where  it  often 
constitutes  the  chief  and 
only  growth  along  the  wa- 
ter courses,  and  balm  of 
Gilead  is  known  as  one 
of  our  common  city  shade 
trees.  This  latter  tree,  of- 
ten called  the  balsam,  is 
really  an  important  tree 
of  the  great  northwestern 
country,  being  found  plen- 
tifully in  the  Klondike, 
and  often  forming  in  that 
far  northern  country  great 
forests  thousands  of  square 
miles  in  extent.  It  is  used  as  a  shade  tree  because  it 
stands  the  smoke  and  gas  of  the  city  where  many  other 
trees  pine  away  and  die. 

57.  Sassafras.  We  find  many  freaks  in  the  tree 
world,  and  nature  seems  to  have  tried  to  see  how  odd 


FIG.  118.  Cotton- 
wood,  or  Caro- 
lina Poplar 


TREES   HAVING   SIMPLE  LEAVES 


109 


she  really  could  be ;  for  instance,  on  the  sassafras  tree 
we  find  three  distinct  kinds  of  leaves,  having  one,  two, 
and  three  divisions. 

This  tree,  which  in  the  northern  states  is  usually  quite 
small,  grows  under  favorable  conditions  to  a  height  of 
fifty  feet.  It  is  noted  for  the  pleasant  taste  of  its  leaves, 


FIG.  119.    Sassafras 

twigs,  and  roots,  which  are  used  considerably  in  flavor- 
ing medicines. 

58.  Mulberry.  Another  tree  noted  for  the  peculiar 
shape  of  its  leaves  is  the  mulberry.  There  are  three 
common  kinds,  named,  from  the  color  of  their  berries, 
red,  black,  and  ivhite. 


110 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


It  is  the  white  mulberry  whose  leaves  are  the  food  of 
the  silkworm.     The  leaves  of  this  tree  are  quite  regular, 


FIG.  120.    Red  Mulberry,  showing  Variation  in  Leaf  Form 

but  those  of  the  red  and  black  vary  apparently  as  they 
please.  No  two  leaves  seem  to  be  alike  either  in  size 
or  shape,  and  they  are  very  soft  and  downy. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  EVERGREENS 

The  evergreen  trees,  so  called  because  their  needle- 
like  leaves  remain  on  the  tree  all  winter,  are  fully  as 


FIG.  121.    White  Pines  at  Westbury,  Long  Island 

interesting  as  the  broad-leaved  trees.     Without  them 
our  landscapes  in  winter  would  be  much  more  barren 

and  bleak,  and  their  shade  is  very  pleasant  in  summer. 

in 


FIG.  122.    A  View  showing  how  Evergreens  help  to  enrich 

the  Landscape.     Arbor  Vitae  Hedges 

112 


THE   EVERGREENS 


113 


A  pine  forest  with  its  fresh  balsam  air  and  needle-covered 
floor  is  a  sight  to  be  long  remembered. 

The  wood  of  the  evergreens  is  usually  classed  among 
the  soft  timbers,  although  the  yellow  pine  is  far  from  soft. 

59.  White  Pine.  The  king  among  evergreens  is  usu- 
ally admitted  to  be  the  white  pine.  Its  soft,  bluish-green 
foliage,  the  widespreading  branches,  and 
the  value  of  its  fine,  even-grained  wood 
give  it  the  first  rank. 

Pines  have  needle-shaped  leaves 
which  grow  in  groups  of  two, 
three,  or  five.  White  pine  nee- 
dles grow  in  groups  of  five  and 
are  from  three  to  four  inches 
long.  The  cones  which  contain 
the  seeds  are  about  five  inches 
long.  The  tree  grows  tall  and 
straight,  and  formerly  grew  in 
great  forests  covering  thousands 
of  square  miles ;  the  wood  is  so 
free  from  pitch  and  is  so  easily  worked  with  tools  that 
these  great  forests  have  been  almost  annihilated  by  the 
lumberman's  ax,  and  white-pine  timber  has  become  quite 
expensive.  It  takes  many  years  for  a  tree  to  grow  large 
enough  for  timber,  and  unless  we  are  more  economical  in 
the  future  white  pine  will  be  only  a  memory. 


FIG.  123.   Needles  and  Cone 
of  White  Pine 


114  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 

60.  Georgia  Pine.  The  southern  yellow  pine,  or  Georgia 
pine,  is  a  very  different  tree  from  its  northern  cousin,  the 
white  pine,  furnishing  us  with  a  resinous  yellow  wood, 
much  harder  than  white  pine,  and  a  beautiful  and  valu- 
able material  for  the  interiors  of  buildings.  It  is  also 
very  durable  and  is  frequently  used  for  exposed  places, 
such  as  the  decks  of  ships. 

The  needles  are  very  long,  measuring  a  foot  and  some- 
times fifteen  inches  in  length. 

The  seed  cones  are  from  six  to 
ten  inches  long,  and  the  scales  have 
little  prickles  on  their  ends.  The 
tree  grows  throughout  the  south- 
ern states  from  Virginia  to  Texas, 
and  the  cutting  of  its  timber  is  a 
valuable  industry  of  the  South. 
61.  Yellow  Pine.  The  common 

FIG.  124.    Hemlock  n  •  ji  c         j    j 

yellow  pine  must  not  be  confounded 

with  the  long-leaved  Georgia  pine.  The  former  has 
needles  growing  three  in  a  bunch,  and  the  latter  short 
needles  three  or  four  inches  long,  growing  two  and  some- 
times three  in  a  group.  The  cone  of  the  common  yellow 
pine  is  also  very  much  smaller,  being  only  two  inches 
long. 

Its  wood  is  very  valuable  and  is  used  for  flooring, 
ceiling,  and  interior  finishing. 


THE   EVERGREENS  115 

There  are  several  less  important  kinds  of  pine,  such 
as  the  northern  and  Jersey  scrub  pines,  and  the  red, 
or  Norway  pine. 

Spruce,  hemlock,  and  fir  are  well-known  members  of 
the  evergreen  family. 

62.  Hemlock  is  a  graceful,  dainty-looking  tree,  with 
drooping  branches  and  little  needles  not  over  half  an 


FIG.  125.    The  Influence  of  Hemlock  on  the  Winter  Landscape.     Snow  Scene 

inch  long.  It  is  a  northern  tree  except  along  the 
Allegheny  Mountains,  where  it  extends  as  far  south  as 
Alabama.  The  seed  cones  are  the  tiniest  brown  things 
to  be  found  among  the  common  trees.  They  are  no 
longer  than  the  hemlock  needles. 


116  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 

The  wood  is  not  as  valuable  as  pine,  splitting  very 
easily  and  being  afflicted  with  shakes,  a  defect  caused 
by  the  annual  layers  or  rings  breaking  away  from  each 
other  when  the  trees  are  swayed  by  the  winter  storms. 
The  bark  is  valuable,  however,  as  it  is  rich  in  tannin. 

63.  Spruce.  The  tall,  dark,  cone-shaped  evergreen 
trees  which  ornament  so  many  of  our  old  farm  door- 
yards  are  usually  some  species  of  spruce.  The  spruce 
is  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  balsam  fir,  which  is  so 
commonly  used  for  Christmas  trees,  but  they  are  so 
different  that  they  need  never  be  confused. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  spruce,  including  the 
red,  black,  white,  and  Norway,  but  they  all  bear  a  family 
resemblance. 

Looking  at  the  end  of  a  spruce  twig,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  needles  completely  surround  it.  This  is  not 
true  of  the  fir.  Then  the  spruce  needles  are  sharp  at 
the  tip,  while  the  fir  needles  are  blunt. 

This  family  is  distinctly  a  northern  group,  being 
found  as  far  north  as  Hudson  Bay  and  forming  dense 
forests,  particularly  on  mountain  sides.  One  may  often 
see  on  the  steep  slopes  the  dividing  line  between  the 
broad-leaved  trees  and  the  evergreens,  the  dark  spruces 
extending  clear  up  to  the  summit. 

The  red  spruce  is  found  as  far  south  as  Tennessee, 
but  in  that  latitude  it  grows  only  at  high  elevations. 


THE  EVERGREENS  117 

It  has  cones  about  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  its 
wood  is  light,  soft,  and  close-grained.  The  wood  is  used 
for  the  sounding-boards  of  musical  instruments  and  for 
the  frames  of  buildings. 

The  black  spruce  is  the  northern  brother  of  the  red, 
and  is  really  a  Canadian  tree  which  occasionally  reaches 
down  into  the  United  States.  It  reaches  the  Mackenzie 
River  on  the  north  and  covers  large  areas  in  Manitoba. 

It  takes  its  name  from  the  dark, 
somber  color  of  its  foliage,  which  seems 
almost  black  against  the  snowy  hill- 
sides. 

The  cones  are  the  same  size  as  on  the 
red  spruce,  but  they  persist  in  remaining 
on  the  tree  for  several  years.  The  wood 
is  soft  and  weak  and  is  used  for  sound- 
ing-boards, pulp,  and  light  framing  for  FlG- 126-  Black 

Spruce 

houses. 

The  white  spruce  is  similar  to  the  other  two,  but 
lighter  in  color,  cones  a  trifle  longer  and  softer,  and 
needles  more  slender.  It  is  a  northern  tree ;  its  wood 
is  very  white  and  clear-grained,  and  is  used  for  finish- 
ing the  interior  of  houses. 

Norway  spruce,  as  its  name  implies,  is  an  importa- 
tion from  Europe,  where  its  majestic  height  graces  the 
mountains  from  the  Alps  to  Norway  and  Sweden.  It 


118 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 


grows  very  tall,  sometimes  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and 
flourishes  as  well  in  America  as  in  Europe.  The  cones 
are  four  or  five  inches  long.  Its  wood  is  known  in 
Europe  as  deal. 

64.  Cypress.   In  the  swamps  of  our  southern  states, 
from  Maryland  south  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  are 

found  great  dark  forests  of 
the  bald  cypress. 

They  grow  directly  out 
of  the  water  and  are  famous 
for  a  peculiar  formation  of 
the  roots  called  cypress 
knees,  —  lumpy  growths 
which  come  up  out  of  the 
water  as  if  they  were  in 
search  of  air.  The  cypress 
is  a  tall,  spirelike  tree, 
which  has  the  most  deli- 
FIG.  127.  Cypress  cate>  feathery  needles  im- 

aginable. They  drop  off  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  tree 
is  sometimes  called  deciduous  cypress.  The  cones  are 
roundish  and  about  an  inch  long.  The  timber  furnished 
by  this  tree  is  very  handsome  in  grain  and  valuable  for 
many  parts  of  buildings,  especially  inside  finishing. 

65.  The  Balsam  Fir,  or  our  famous  Christmas  tree,  is 
noted  for  its  great  healing  qualities.     In  fact,  sanitaria 


THE   EVERGREENS  119 

for  invalids,  especially  consumptives,  are  frequently 
built  in  the  midst  of  great  fir  forests,  that  the  sufferers 
may  inhale  the  pure  mountain  air,  laden  as  it  is  with 
the  odors  of  the  balsam  fir.  The  needles  are  often  used 
to  fill  pillows,  which  are  said  to  soothe  tired  and  worn- 
out  people  to  sleep. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  sweet,  woodsy  smell  of 
the  Christmas  tree.'  No  other  tree  can  take  its  place. 
It  brings  visions  of  the  country,  of  the  woods  and  fields 
and  flowers,  and  it  will  al- 
ways be  dear  to  us. 

The  balsam  fir  can  always 
be  distinguished  from  the 
spruce  by  the  fact  that  the 
needles  only  come  out  at 
the  sides  of  the  twig  instead 
of  from  all  directions,  as  in 
the  spruce,  and  its  end  is 
blunt,  whereas  that  of  the 
spruce  is  sharply  pointed.  Fic"  128'  Balsam  Fir 

The  bark  of  the  tree  is  gray  and  has  tiny  blisters 
which  contain  the  balsam,  Canada  balsam  it  is  usually 
called,  well  known  for  its  healing  qualities. 

The  cones  are  from  two  to  four  inches  long,  stand 
upright  on  the  branches,  and  the  wood  is  not  very 
valuable. 


120 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


66.  The  Cedars.  No  list  of  evergreen  trees  would  be 
complete  without  the  cedars.  In  this  group  is  the  well- 
known  hedge  tree,  arbor  vitoe,  sometimes  erroneously 
called  ivhite  cedar.  It  is  famous  for  its  flattened,  bright 
green,  scaly  leaves,  with  their  strong,  pungent  odor. 

This  tree  is  usually  so  trimmed  that  we  have  very 
little  knowledge  as  to  its  real  shape  and  height  if 

allowed  to  grow  naturally;  but 
it  is  said  to  reach  a  height  of 
fifty  feet  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

67.  White  Cedar.  The  real 
white  cedar  has  a  more  deli- 
cate leaf  and  is  fond  of  cool 
swamps. 

It  has  a  conical  shape  and  is 
much  larger  than  the  arbor  vi- 
tae,  reaching  sometimes  ninety 
feet.  The  wood  is  very  valu- 
able, being  soft  but  durable,  and  is  used  for  shingles, 
posts,  and  boats.  It  has  the  property  of  enduring  the 
changes  such  as  posts  or  other  structural  members  are 
obliged  to  withstand  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and  ranks 
next  to  yellow  locust  in  this  particular. 

68.  Red  Cedar  is  the  tree  which  supplies  our  lead 
pencils.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  straight,  even  grain, 


FIG.  129.   Arbor  Vitae 


THE  EVERGREENS  121 

and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  worked.  This  is  the 
familiar  tree  of  our  roadside,  where  the  birds  who  feast 
on  the  cedar  berries  have  stood  on  the  fence  rails  and 
unconsciously  planted  rows  of  cedars  for  future  genera- 
tions by  dropping  the  seeds  on  the  ground. 


FIG.  130.    Red  Cedar  growing  along  Roadside  from  Seed  dropped  by  Birds 

The  red  cedar  seems  to  grow  where  other  trees  can- 
not exist,  but  like  other  trees  responds  to  good  treat- 
ment and  reaches  its  best  development  in  the  balmy 
and  luxuriant  South. 

It  is  found  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  In  the  North  it  rarely  grows 


122  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORKING 

over  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  of  compact  growth,  but  in 
Florida  it  reaches  eighty  feet. 

The  leaves  are  remarkable  in  that  there  are  two 
shapes,  the  sharp  or  awl-shaped,  and  the  scale-shaped, 
growing  upon  the  same  branch. 

The  wood  is  valuable  for  many  purposes  and  has  been 
used  so  extensively  that  it  is  becoming  scarce. 

Florida  has  furnished  the  world  with  red  cedar  for 
lead  pencils  for  years,  and  it  is  said  that  during  the 
Civil  War,  when  the  whole  southern  coast  was  block- 
aded, the  European  manufacturers  were  obliged  to  scour 
the  world  to  find  a  substitute  for  the  Florida  cedar. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    BIG   TREES 


Each  section  of  country  has  its  own  peculiar  trees, 
and  those  described  have  been  mainly  representative 


FIG.  131.    Big  Trees  scarred  by  Fire  at  the  Base.     Redwood  Meadow, 

California 

of  the  eastern   states;    but  no  list  of  American  trees 
would  be  complete  without  the  "big  trees,"  as  they  are 


FIG.  132.    Big  Trees,  "General  Grant"  and  "General  Sherman," 
Calareras  County,  California 


124 


THE  UKJ   TREES 


125 


commonly  called,  of  California.  The  annual  rings  of 
these  giants  show  them  to  be  from  two  thousand  to 
four  thousand  years  old. 

It  is  hard  to  realize  this  great  age.  It  means  that 
for  centuries  and  centuries  before  the  white  men  came 
these  kings  of  the  forests  looked  down  on  generations 


FIG.  133.    "  General  Grant,"  a  Big  Tree,  Mariposa  Grove,  California 

and  generations  of  Indian  tribes.  They  may  even  have 
seen  the  coming  of  the  first  Indians.  What  wonderful 
tales  they  might  relate  if  they  could  only  talk ! 

On  that  fateful   day  over  four  hundred  years  ago, 
when  the  three  little  caravels  of  Columbus  sighted  the 


126 


THE   BIG   TREES  127 

West  Indies,  these  hoary  old  treas  were  twenty-five  hun- 
dred years  old.  They  should  be  sacred  to  every  Ameri- 
can, and  not  one  should  ever  be  cut  down  for  lumber. 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  big  trees,  the  redwood 
and  the  so-called  "  big  trees,"  which  are  the  largest  trees 
in  the  world.  They  both  belong  to  the  cone-bearing 
(coniferous)  group,  and  the  needles  are  only  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  long  and  the  little  cones  an  inch. 

The  wood  is  reddish,  as  the  name  implies,  not  unlike 
red  cedar,  but  is  softer  and  is  used  for  many  purposes 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  big  trees  are  now  carefully  guarded  by  the 
government.  One  grove  alone  which  contains  seven 
hundred  of  these  fhie  trees,  called  the  Mariposa  Grove, 
has  been  reserved  as  a  national  park,  and  is  watched 
carefully  to  keep  out  forest  fires,  etc. 

Many  of  the  best  known  of  these  trees  are  given 
names.  One  is  called  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  because  of 
a  peculiar  opening  at  the  base. 

The  most  famous  perhaps  is  the  "  Grizzly  Giant." 
This  one  is  ninety-three  feet  in  circumference  at  the 
ground,  and  its  first  branch  is  two  hundred  feet  above 
the  earth  and  eight  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  considered 
the  largest  tree  in  the  world. 

We  can  get  some  idea  of  what  these  figures  represent 
when  we  know  that  it  takes  five  men  three  weeks  to 


128 


THE  BK;  TKI;I> 


129 


cut  one  down,  and  that  the  cost  of  felling  one  of  these 
monsters  is  five  hundred  dollars. 

A  stump  of  one  of  these  trees  is  so  large  that  dances 
have  been  held  on  it,  and  on  one  very  large  one  a  ball- 
room has  been  built  for  this  special  purpose. 

As  one  Calif ornian  has  said,  "  The  redwood  forests 
are  apparently  imperishable,  except  through  the  ax,  as 
the  trees  are  rarely  injured  by  fire.  The  redwood  is 
the  only  lumber  that  can  take  the  place  of  the  white 
pine,  answer  as  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  mahogany 
and  black  walnut,  displace  oak  for  railroad  ties,  cypress 
and  cedar  for  shingles,  and  surpass  all  other  woods  for 
durability  when  in  contact  with  the  earth  or  when 
exposed  to  moisture." 


FIG.  136.   Immense  Flock  of  Sheep  being  herded  illegally  in  a  United  States 
Government  Forest  Reservation.     (They  kill  the  young  seedling  trees) 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Annual  rings 59 

Ash .92 

Aspen 107 

Band  saw 58 

Basswood 103 

Beech 99 

B^nch,  care  of 3 

Bench  hook 15 

Bevel 10 

Big  Trees  of  California   .     .  123 

Birches 98 

Bit,  auger 27 

auger,  details  of   ...  28 

center 27 

countersink      ....  29 

gimlet 29 

Black  walnut 89 

Brace,  common  forms  of.     .  2<i 

and  hit 27 

Bract  of  linden        ....  105 

Buckeye 87 

Butternut 89 

Buttonwood 101 

Cap  iron    .......  17 

Cedar    .  120 


Chisel,  cutting  angle  o,f  .     .  23 

firmer 24 

framing 24 

methods  of  using      .     .  24 

sharpening 25 

Clamp  iron  of  planu    ...  18 
Compound  leaves    ....  85 
Cottonwood,  or  Carolina  pop- 
lar   108 

Cutting  tools 11 

Cypress 113 

Dovetail.     See  Joint 

Drawing  board  ....     45,  62 

Elm,  American 94 

Evergreens Ill 

Felling  trees 52 

Fir,  balsam 118 

Framing  square       ....  8 

Gang  saw 55 

Glue,  use  of 39 

Grain  of  wood 59 

Groups  of  tools 4 

Gum,  sweet,  or  liquid  amber  101 


131 


132 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORKING 


Hammer,  claw 31 

use  of 32 

Handscrew,  use  of  ....  40 

Hemlock 115 

Hickory 87 

Honey  locust 91 

Hornbeam 100 

Horse-chestnut 86 

Ironwood 100 

Joint,  definition  of      ...  39 

dovetail 47 

end  lap 44 

middle  lap 38 

miter 41 

Joint  edge 37 

Jointers 21 


Laying  out  work     . 
Linden,  or  basswood 

Locust 

Log  boom      .     .     . 


.  38 

.  103 

.  91 

•  55 

Log  jam 53 

Logs,  redwood 126 

Lumbering  and  milling  .     .  51 

Mallet 33 

Maple,  ash-leaved  ....  82 

Japan 84 

Norway 78 

red 80 

silver 78 

striped 81 


Maple,  sugar 76 

sycamore 80 

Maple  keys 82 

Marking  gauge 8 

Mechanical  drawing    ...  43 

of  end  lap  joint    ...  44 

of  cylinder 44 

Medullary  rays 59 

Miscellaneous  tools      ...  31 

Mortise,  cutting  a  ....  34 

Mulberry 109 


Nail  set  or  punch   .     .     . 
Nails,  cut  and  wire 

method  of  using  cut 

withdrawing    . 

Oak,  black  and  black-jack 

chestnut      .... 

live 

mossy-cup  .... 

pin 

post 

red 

scarlet 

white      ..... 
Oilstone,  use  of .     .     .     . 


32 
41 
41 
32 

69 
74 
75 
68 
72 
67 
70 
71 
66 
25 


Pecan 89 

Perspective  drawing  and 
constructive  drawing 

compared     ....  43 

Pine,  Georgia 114 

white  113 


INDEX 


133 


Pine,  yellow 114 

Plan  of  work 4 

Plane 17 

adjustments  on    ...  18 

block 21 

block,  method  of  using  22 

jack 19 

smooth 20 

wooden 22 

Plane  iron  in  action    ...  17 

Poplars 106 

River  driving     .....  53 

Rule,  use  of 6 

Sandpaper,  use  of  ....  34 

Sassafras 108 

Saw,  back 15 

circular 57 

method  of  holding  .     .  14 

turning 16 

Saw  tapers 14 

Saw  teeth,  shape  of     ...  13 

Saw  tooth  action     ....  11 

Saw  tooth  set 13 

Sawmill 55 


PAGE 

Saws 11 

Scale  drawing 48 

Screw-driver 33 

Screws,    varieties     of,    and 

methods  of  using  .     .  42 

Sections  of  red  oak      ...  70 

Set  screw  of  plane  iron    .     .  17 

Shake  in  wood 60 

Shrinkage 61 

Spokeshave 29 

Spruce 116 

Stock,  squaring  up ....  36 

Sycamore 101 

T  square,  use  of      ....  45 
Timber  and  lumber     ...  58 
Trees,  broad-leaved,  or  decid- 
uous      65 

Triangles,  use  of     ....  45 

Try-square,  use  of  ....  6 

Tulip,  or  whitewood    .     .     .  102 

Warping 61 

Weather  checks 60 

Willow 106 

Working  face 37 


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